Using Medications Appropriately in Older Adults

CYNTHIA M. WILLIAMS, CAPT, MC, USN, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland

Older Americans comprise 13 percent of the population, but they consume an average of 30 percent of all prescription drugs. Every day, physicians are faced with issues surrounding appropriate prescribing to older patients. Polypharmacy, use of supplements, adherence issues, and the potential for adverse drug events all pose challenges to effective prescribing. Knowledge of the interplay between aging physiology, chronic diseases, and drugs will help the physician avoid potential adverse drug events as well as drug-drug and drug-disease interactions. Evidence is now available showing that older patients may be underprescribed useful drugs, including aspirin for secondary prevention in high-risk patients, beta blockers following myocardial infarction, and warfarin for nonvalvular atrial fibrillation. There is also evidence that many older adults receive medications that could potentially cause more harm than good. Finding the right balance between too few and too many drugs will help ensure increased longevity, improved overall health, and enhanced functioning and quality of life for the aging population. (Am Fam Physician 2002;66:1917-24. Copyright© 2002 American Academy of Family Physicians.)

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See page 1856 for definitions of strength-of-evidence levels.

The U.S. population is aging. Patients 65 years and older represent approximately 13 percent of the population, but they consume about 30 percent of all prescription medications.¹ Older American consumers spend an average total of $3 billion annually on prescription medications.² Sixty-one percent of older people seeing a physician are taking at least one prescription medication,³ and most older Americans take an average of three to five medications.^4,5 These data do not include the use of over-the-counter medications or herbal therapies. An estimated 40 percent of older Americans have used some form of dietary supplement within the past year⁶ (Table 1).⁷

TABLE 1 Common Herbs Taken by Older Adults and Drug Interactions Herb (uses) Drug Adverse events Ginkgo biloba (Alzheimer's and vascular dementia; peripheral vascular disease, erectile dysfunction, and tinnitus) Aspirin Spontaneous hyphema Warfarin (Coumadin) Intracerebral hemorrhage Thiazide diuretic Hypertension Acetaminophen and ergotamine/caffeine Subdural hematoma St. John's wort (mild depression) Protease inhibitors, cyclosporine (Sandimmune), theophylline, warfarin Induction of CYP450 3A4 system with decreased levels of drugs available Digoxin (Lanoxin) Decreased drug absorption from the gut Selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitors Lethargy/incoherence/mild serotonin syndrome Saw palmetto (benign prostatic hypertrophy) No specific drug interactions Headaches, GI upset Ginseng (cure-all herb) Warfarin Decreased INR Alcohol Increased alcohol clearance Phenelzine (Nardil); MAOI) Headache, tremor, mania Yohimbine (sexual dysfunction) Tricyclic antidepressants Hypertension Senna, cascara (laxative) Possible interference with any intestinally absorbed drug Decreased drug availability CYP450 = cytochrome P-450; GI = gastrointestinal; INR = International Normalized Ratio; MAOI = monoamine oxidase inhibitor. Information from Fugh-Berman A. Herb-drug interactions. Lancet 2000;355:134-8.

The physician who cares for aging patients with numerous chronic medical conditions must make daily decisions about appropriate drug therapy. More than 60 percent of all physician visits include a prescription for medication.⁸ The multiple medications and complex drug schedules may be justified for older persons with complex medical problems. However, the use of too many medications can pose problems of serious adverse drug events and drug-drug interactions, and often can contribute to nonadherence (Table 2).⁹

TABLE 2 Factors Associated with Medication-Related Problems Wrong or unnecessary drugs being prescribed Unmet need for new or additional medications Wrong medication (contraindications, inappropriate for condition being treated) Dosage too low or too high Adverse drug reaction or event Nonadherence or noncompliance (failure to take drugs properly, cost, prescribing errors) Information from Hepler CD, Strand LM. Opportunities and responsibilities in pharmaceutical care. Am J Hosp Pharm 1990;47:533-43.

TABLE 3 Common Characteristics of Older Adults with Medication-Related Problems 85 years and older More than six active chronic medical diagnoses Decreased kidney function (estimated creatinine clearance < 50 mL per minute [0.83 mL per second]) Low body weight or body-mass index Nine or more medications More than 12 doses of medication per day Previous adverse drug reaction Information from Fouts M, Hanlon J, Pieper C, Perfetto E, Feinberg J. Identification of elderly nursing facility residents at high risk for drug-related problems. Consult Pharm 1997;12:1103-11.

Adherence and Adverse Drug Events

Many factors influence the efficacy, safety, and success of drug therapy with older patients. These factors include not only the effects of aging on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of medications but also patient characteristics (Table 3)¹⁰ and other issues, including atypical presentation of illness, the use of multiple health care professionals, and adherence to drug regimens (Table 4).^11,12

TABLE 4 Factors That Interfere with Safe and Successful Drug Therapy Impediments to the recognition of the need to obtain care (cultural, economic, physical, psychologic) Atypical presentation of illness Multiple illnesses Dementia Diminished vision or hearing Impairments to adherence (cultural, economic, physical, psychologic) Polypharmacy Increased susceptibility to adverse drug events Age-related changes in pharmacology (absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion) Information from references 11 and 12.

TABLE 5 Strategies to Enhance Adherence to Drug Therapy The rightsholder did not grant rights to reproduce this item in electronic media. For the missing item, see the original print version of this publication.

Adherence or compliance with drug therapy is essential to successful medical management. Noncompliance or nonadherence with drug therapy in older patient populations ranges from 21 to 55 percent.^13,14 The reasons for nonadherence include more medication use (total number of pills taken per day), forgetting or confusion about dosage schedule, intentional nonadherence because of medication side effects, and increased sensitivity to drugs leading to toxicity and adverse events.¹² Older patients may intentionally take too much of a medication, thinking it will help speed their recovery, while others, who cannot afford the medications, may undermedicate or simply not take any of the medication. Simple interventions by the health care team, such as reinforcing the importance of taking the prescribed dose and encouraging use of pill calendar boxes, can improve adherence and overall compliance with drug therapy (Table 5).¹¹

One study¹⁵ revealed that adverse drug events in older patients led to hospitalizations in 25 percent of patients 80 years and older. Adverse drug reactions are a common cause of iatrogenic illness in this age group, with psychotropic and cardiovascular drugs accounting for many of these.¹¹ Many drugs can cause distressing and potentially disabling or life-threatening reactions (Table 6).¹¹ A basic understanding of how drugs affect the aging body is needed to appreciate the risk inherent in prescribing to older adults.

TABLE 6 Common Adverse Drug Events and Clinical Outcomes Drug/drug class Common adverse reactions Common clinical outcomes Anti-inflammatory agents Gastric irritation, ulcers, chronic blood loss, nephrotoxicity Hemorrhage, anemia, sodium retention, renal failure, may decrease effectiveness of antihypertensive drugs Aminoglycosides Renal failure Increased serum concentration of medications; dialysis Anticholinergics Dry mouth, decreased gut motility, bladder hypotonia, decreased cognition, sedation, orthostatic hypotension, blurry vision Constipation, urinary retention, confusion, instability and falls Anticoagulants Bleeding complications Hemorrhage Antidepressants (tricyclics) Anticholinergic effects, heart block Falls, confusion, urinary retention Antipsychotics Sedation, tardive dyskinesia, dystonia, anticholinergic effects, hypotension Falls, hip fractures, confusion, social disability Beta blockers Decreased myocardial contractility, decreased cardiac conduction, mild sedation, orthostatic hypotension Bradycardia, heart failure, possible confusion, falls Digoxin Decreased cardiac conduction, gastrointestinal disturbances Arrhythmias, nausea, anorexia Insulin, sulfonylureas,acarbose (Precose) Hypoglycemia Falls, confusion, brain injury Narcotics Decreased gut motility, sedation Confusion, constipation Sedative hypnotics Excessive sedation, cognitive impairment, gait disturbances, impaired psychomotor performance Falls and fractures, confusion Information from Kane RL, Ouslander JG, Abrass IB. Essentials of clinical geriatrics. 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1999.

How Do Drugs Interact with the Aging Body?

Patients 65 years and older represent about 13 percent of the population, but consume about 30 percent of all prescription medications.

Pharmacokinetics includes absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion. Of the four, absorption is least affected by aging.¹⁶ In older persons, absorption is generally complete, just slower. In addition to age-related changes, common medical conditions such as heart failure may reduce the rate and extent of absorption. Distribution of most medications is related to body weight and composition changes that occur with aging (decreased lean muscle mass, increased fat mass, and decreased total body water). Drug dosage recommendations may have to be modified based on estimates of lean body mass. Loading doses of drugs may be lowered because of decreased total body water. Fat-soluble drugs may have to be administered in lower dosages because of the potential for accumulation in fatty tissues and a longer duration of action.¹⁶

How a drug is cleared, through hepatic metabolism or renal clearance, dramatically changes with aging. Hepatic metabolism is variable and depends on age, genotype, lifestyle, hepatic blood flow, hepatic diseases, and interactions with other medications.¹⁶ Hepatic metabolism occurs through one of two biotransformation systems. Phase I reactions (oxidation, reduction, demethylation, or hydrolysis) via the cytochrome P450 system (CYP450) can produce biologically active metabolites. Phase I reactions tend to occur more slowly in older adults, which often leads to less than optimal drug metabolism. In contrast, phase II metabolism, including acetylation, sulfonation, conjugation, and glucuronidation, is little changed with aging (Table 7).¹⁶ Cigarette smoking, alcohol use, and caffeine use may also affect hepatic metabolism of medications.¹⁶

Pharmacokinetics includes absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion. Of the four, absorption is least affected by the aging process.

Renal excretion of drugs is affected by aging, although there is great interindividual variation. Drug elimination is correlated with creatinine clearance, which declines by 50 percent between 25 and 85 years of age.¹⁶ Because lean body mass decreases with aging, the serum creatinine level is a poor indicator of (and tends to overestimate) the creatinine clearance in older adults. The Cockroft-Gault formula¹⁷ should be used to estimate creatinine clearance in older adults:

Creatinine clearance =	(140 - age) X weight (kg)
	72 X serum creatinine (X 0.85 for women)

For example, a 25-year-old man and an 85-year-old man, each weighing 72 kg (158.4 lb) and having a serum creatinine value of 1 mg per dL (76 µmol per L), would have different estimated creatinine clearance even though their serum creatinine value is the same. The younger man would have an estimated creatinine clearance of 115 mL per minute (1.92 mL per second), while the older man's would be 55 mL per minute (0.92 mL per second). This difference is especially important with drugs that have a low therapeutic index and appreciable renal excretion (aminoglycosides, lithium, digoxin, procainamide [Pronestyl], vancomycin [Vancocin]).²

TABLE 7 Drugs with Decreased Clearance in Older Adults Route of clearance Representative drug Renal All aminoglycosides, vancomycin (Vancocin), ciprofloxacin (Cipro), levofloxacin (Levaquin), ofloxacin (Floxin), sparfloxacin (Zagam), imipenem (Primaxin), penicillins, digoxin (Lanoxin), procainamide (Pronestyl), lithium, enalapril (Vasotec), lisinopril (Zestril), quinapril (Accupril), ramipril (Altace), sotalol (Betapace), atenolol (Tenormin), nadolol (Corgard), dofetilide (Tikosyn), cimetidine (Tagamet), famotidine (Pepcid), nizatidine (Axid), ranitidine (Zantac), acetohexamide (Dymelor), chlorpropamide (Diabinese), glyburide (Micronase), tolazamide (Tolinase) Phase I hepatic biotransformation via cytochrome P450 system Alprazolam (Xanax), midazolam (Versed), triazolam (Halcion), verapamil (Calan), diltiazem (Cardizem), dihydropyridine calcium channel blockers, lidocaine (Xylocaine), diazepam (Valium), phenytoin (Dilantin), celecoxib (Celebrex), theophylline, imipramine (Tofranil), desipramine (Norpramin), trazodone (Desyrel), flurazepam (Dalmane) Phase II hepatic biotransformation Lorazepam (Ativan), oxazepam (Serax), isoniazid (INH), procainamide Information from Luisi AF, Owens NJ, Hume AL. Drugs and the elderly. In: Gallo JJ, Reichel W, eds. Reichel's Care of the elderly: clinical aspects of aging, 5th ed. Philadelphia: Williams & Wilkins, 1999:59-87.

Pharmacodynamics relates to how sensitive tissues are to drugs. Sensitivity to drugs may increase or decrease with aging, and these full effects are poorly understood as a component of the aging process.¹⁶ Pharmacodynamic changes may be related to changes in receptor binding, decreased receptor number, or altered translation of a receptor-initiated cellular response. For older adults, complete elimination of a drug from body tissues, including the brain, can take weeks because of a combination of pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic effects.

Drug elimination correlates with creatinine clearance, which declines by 50 percent between 25 and 85 years of age.

How Many Drugs Are Too Many?

Polypharmacy is simply the use of many medications at the same time. Other definitions include prescribing more medication than is clinically indicated, a medical regimen that includes at least one unnecessary medication, or the empiric use of five or more medications.¹⁸ Polypharmacy is particularly harmful when the patient receives too many medications for too long and in too high a dosage. The major concern about polypharmacy is the potential for adverse drug reactions and interactions. It has been estimated that for every dollar spent on pharmaceuticals in nursing homes, another dollar is spent treating the iatrogenic illnesses attributed to the medications.¹⁹ Drug-induced adverse events can mimic other geriatric syndromes or precipitate confusion, falls, and incontinence (Table 6),¹¹ possibly causing the physician to prescribe yet another drug. This prescribing cascade^20,21 is a preventable problem that requires the physician to be certain that all medications being taken by the patient are appropriately indicated, safe, and effective.

To prevent an iatrogenic illness caused by overprescribing, it is important to consider any new signs and symptoms in an older patient to be a possible consequence of current drug therapy.²⁰ A 10-step approach to help reduce polypharmacy has been described (Table 8).²² Another way to avoid adverse drug events is to use lower dosages for older patients. Many popular drugs do not have effective lower-dosage recommendations from the manufacturers. Physicians should remember to start low and go slow. Starting with one third to one half of the recommended dosage may help eliminate potential harmful effects.²²

TABLE 8 10 Steps to Reducing Polypharmacy Have patients "brown bag" all medications at each office visit, and keep an accurate record of all medications, including over-the-counter medications and herbs. Get into the habit of identifying all drugs by generic name and drug class. Make certain the drug being prescribed has a clinical indication. Know the side-effect profile of the drugs being prescribed. Understand how pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of aging increase the risk of adverse drug events. Stop any drug without known benefit. Stop any drug without a clinical indication. Attempt to substitute a less toxic drug. Be aware of the prescribing cascade (treating an adverse drug reaction as an illness with another drug). As much as possible, use the motto, "one disease, one drug, once-a-day." Information from Carlson JE. Perils of polypharmacy: 10 steps to prudent prescribing. Geriatrics 1996;51;26-30,35.

What Medications Could Potentially Cause Trouble?

Drug-related problems including therapeutic failure, adverse drug reactions, and adverse drug withdrawal events are common in older patients.²³ To address this problem, a list of drugs that may be inappropriate to prescribe to older persons, especially the frail elderly, was developed through a consensus of experts in geriatric medicine and pharmacology.^24,25 This list, known as the Beers criteria, was originally targeted at nursing homes but has been expanded for community-dwelling seniors.²⁶

A recent review²⁷ of the Beers criteria applied to various health care settings, from community-dwelling seniors to frail nursing home patients, found that between one in four and one in seven older patients received at least one inappropriate medication. The problematic drugs most often prescribed were long-acting benzodiazepines, dipyridamole (Persantine), propoxyphene (Darvon), and amitriptyline (Elavil).²⁷ When applying these criteria to a patient, it is important to remember that if a drug has been used for a long time without a serious adverse effect, it may not need to be discontinued. The physician should continually monitor a patient's drug list and carefully ascertain if any medication is causing harm. Physicians can address this issue by keeping a list of drugs that can cause serious adverse events when prescribed to older adults (Table 9).^24,25 [References 24 and 25, Evidence level C: expert opinion/consensus]

TABLE 9 Inappropriate Medication/Medication Classes for Use in Older Adults Medication/medication class Problematic use Antihistamines (chlorpheniramine [Extendryl], diphenhydramine [Benadryl], hydroxyzine [Atarax], cyproheptadine [Periactin], dexchlorpheniramine [Polaramine], promethazine [Phenergan], tripelennamine [PBZ]) Many of these are over-the-counter drugs used to treat the common cold with potent anticholinergic effects; many elderly persons use these drugs to induce sleep; if using to treat seasonal allergies, use lowest effective dose. Blood products/modifiers/volume expanders (dipyridamole [Persantine], ticlopidine [Ticlid]) Platelet aggregation inhibitors are used to prevent blood from clotting in persons who have had strokes or myocardial infarction; ticlopidine has been shown to be no better thanaspirin, and it is more toxic; dipyridamole is beneficial in patients with artifical valves. Antihypertensives (methyldopa [Aldomet], reserpine [Serpasil]) Methyldopa can slow heart rate and exacerbate depression; reserpine causes depression, erectile dysfunction, sedation, and light-headedness. Peripheral vasodilators (cyclandelate [Cyclospasmol], ergot mesyloids [Hydergine]) Used to treat dementia and migraines; not shown to be effective for either in doses studied Antiarrhythmics (disopyramide [Norpace]) Potent negative inotrope, may induce heart failure; strongly anticholinergic Narcotics (meperidine [Demerol], pentazocine [Talwin], propoxyphene [Darvon]) Meperidine is not an effective oral agent for pain and has many disadvantages over other narcotics; pentazocine causes more central nervous system effects, including confusion and hallucinations; propoxyphene offers no advantages over acetaminophen but has same side effects as other narcotic drugs. Barbiturates (except phenobarbital) (butalbital [Fiorinal], pentobarbital [Nembutal], secobarbital [Seconal]) Highly addictive and cause more side effects than other sedative hypnotics; should not be started as new therapy except to treat seizures Benzodiazepines (chlordiazepoxide [Librium],diazepam [Valium], flurazepam [Dalmane], triazolam [Halcion]) Long half-life benzodiazepines produce prolonged sedation and increase risk for falls and fractures; triazolam may cause cognitive and behavioral abnormalities. Meprobamate (Miltown, Equanil) Used to treat anxiety; highly addictive and sedating Antidepressants (amitriptyline [Elavil], doxepin [Sinequan], imipramine [Tofranil], combination antidepressant/antipsychotics Highly anticholinergic and sedating; amitriptyline is rarely the antidepressant of choice in the elderly. Methylphenidate (Ritalin) May cause agitation, stimulation of the central nervous system, and seizures. Antiemetic (trimethobenzamide [Tigan]) Least effective, can cause extrapyramidal side effects Gastrointestinal antispasmodics (Donnatal with belladonna, clidinium [Quarzan], dicyclomine [Bentyl], hyoscyamine [Levsin], propantheline [Pro-Banthine]) All are highly anticholinergic and generally produce substantial toxic effects; best avoided in the elderly; not for long-term use. Antidiarrheals (diphenoxylate [Lomotil]) Drowsiness, cognitive impairment, and dependence; long-term use is not recommended. Genitourinary-antispasmodic (oxybutynin [Ditropan]) Anticholinergic effects; use lowest effective dose. Hypoglycemic agents (chlorpropamide [Diabinese]) Prolonged half-life with prolonged and serious hypoglycemia; can cause syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone. NSAIDs (indomethacin [Indocin], phenylbutazone [Butazolidine], ketorolac [Toradol], mefenamic acid [Ponstel], piroxicam [Feldene]) Indomethacin produces serious central nervous system effects; phenylbutazone producesserious hematologic effects (bone marrow suppression); ketorolac, mefenamic acid, and piroxicam have greater risk of upper gastrointestinal bleeding than other NSAIDs. Skeletal muscle relaxants (all) Effectiveness questionable; anticholinergic effects, sedation, and weakness NSAIDs = nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Information from references 24 and 25.

What Medications Can Benefit Older Patients?

To avoid adverse drug events and polypharmacy, drugs that are beneficial in the treatment or prevention of serious diseases may not be prescribed to older adults.^27,28 For example, clinical evidence is now available showing that older adults benefit from beta-blocker therapy after myocardial infarction, adequate control of hypertension, and adequate treatment of hyperlipidemia. Other medications that have shown benefit in older adults, but are sometimes not prescribed, include angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors for heart failure and anticoagulants for nonvalvular atrial fibrillation (Table 10).^29-39

TABLE 10 Drugs with Proven Benefits in Older Adults Clinical indication Drug Evidence Status post MI, CAD, transient ischemic attacks, stable and unstable angina, peripheral vascular disease, stroke prevention, and embolic stroke prevention in those unable to take warfarin (Coumadin) Aspirin, 75 mg per day Beneficial; most benefit seen for high-risk patients taking medium-dose aspirin for at least three years; should probably be used for life; no clear evidence of use in low-risk patients.29 [Evidence level A, systematic review of RCTs] Status post MI Beta blockers Beneficial; given within hours of infarction and continued for at least one year or until a complication contraindicates use; most benefit found for those older than 65 years and those who suffered large infarcts.30,31 [Reference 30, Evidence level B, retrospective cohort study; Reference 31, Evidence level A, meta-analysis] Hypertension        Systolic hypertension    Thiazide diuretic      Status post MI/CAD    Beta blocker      CHF/DM    ACE inhibitor Any reduction in BP appears to confer benefit; treatment of BP reduces stroke, CHD, cardiovascular disease, heart failure, and mortality; treatment goal is BP < 140/90 mm Hg; however, an interim goal of systolic BP below 160 mm Hg may be needed in those with markedsystolic hypertension; JNC VI recommends starting BP treatment witha low-dose thiazide diuretic or beta blockers in combination with thiazide diuretics.32,33 [References 32 and 33, Evidence level A, meta-analyses] Heart failure ACE inhibitor (no significant difference between ACE inhibitors).34 Spironolactone (Aldactone, 12.5 to 25.0 mg per day)36 Beneficial; reduction in mortality, admission to hospitals, and ischemic events.34,35 [References 34 and 35, Evidence level A, meta-analyses] Spironolactone additive effect in reduction of morbidity and death with severe heart failure (NYHA III-IV).36 [Evidence level A, RCT] Hypercholesterolemia Statins Beneficial; consider treatment for patients 50 to 80 years of age without CAD who have serum LDL levels > 130 mg per dL (3.35 mmol per L) and serum HDL levels < 50 mg per dL (1.30 mmol per L) because older patients are at increased risk of CAD. Treat all men and women with CAD, previous stroke, DM, peripheralartery disease, extracranial carotid arterial disease, and abdominal aortic aneurysm to LDL level < 100 mg per dL (2.59 mmol per L). Active liver disease is a contraindication; a history of liver disease and alcohol use requires cautious use. Myopathy can be a problem; have patients report any unusual muscle tenderness.37 [Evidence level A, systematic review of RCTs]      Start with one half lowest recommended dose and titrate upward to target LDL level      Baseline liver function tests with repeat test after six to 12 weeks of therapy, then twice yearly Chronic nonvalvular atrial fibrillation Warfarin to maintain an INR between 2.0 and 3.0 Beneficial; as primary prevention, about 25 strokes and about 12 disabling fatal strokes would be prevented yearly for every 1,000 patients given oral anticoagulation therapy. Careful monitoring of INR required to offset potential hemorrhagic risk.38,39 [References 38 and 39, Evidence level A, meta-analyses] MI = myocardial infarction; CAD = coronary artery disease; RCT = randomized controlled trial; CHF = congestive heart failure; DM = diabetes mellitus; ACE = angiotensin-converting enzyme; BP = blood pressure; CHD = coronary heart disease; JNC VI = sixth report of the Joint National Committee; NYHA = New York Heart Association classes; LDL = low-density lipoprotein; HDL = high-density lipoprotein; INR = International Normalized Ratio. Information from references 29 through 39.

Prescribing medications for older adults requires maintaining a balance between using too few and too little, and too many and too much.⁴⁰ Frequent follow-up visits, especially if a new drug has been introduced, allow the physician to assess for adverse drug events and possible drug-disease and drug-drug interactions. One recommended strategy is to verify at each patient visit if there is an indication for each drug, if it is effective in this case, if there is any unnecessary duplication with other drugs, and if this is the least expensive drug available compared with others of equal benefit. Before deciding that a medication is a therapeutic failure, the physician should make sure that an adequate dosage has been administered for an appropriate length of time.⁴¹ The goals in using drug therapy are to treat disease, alleviate pain and suffering, and prevent the life-threatening complications of many chronic diseases. Being successful with these goals requires a balance between benefit and risk to optimize prescribing for the aging population.

The author indicates that she does not have any conflicts of interest. Sources of funding: none reported.

The opinions and assertions contained herein are the private views of the author and are not to be construed as official or as reflecting the views of the U.S. Navy Medical Department or the U.S. Navy Service at large.

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The Author

CYNTHIA M. WILLIAMS, CAPT, MC, USN, is an assistant professor of family medicine at Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Md. She completed her family practice residency at Naval Hospital, Camp Pendleton, Calif., and a geriatric fellowship at East Carolina University School of Medicine, Greenville, N.C.

Address correspondence to Cynthia M. Williams, CAPT, MC, USN, USUHS, 4103 Jones Bridge Rd., Bethesda, MD 20814 (e-mail: cwilliams@ usuhs.mil). Reprints are not available from the author.

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