Causes			Treatments
Idiopathic (possible mechanisms)
Dietary factors (low residue)			Increase dietary fiber
Motility disturbances (colonic inertia or spasm such as inirritable bowel syndrome)			Increase dietary fiber, and give medication based on the underlying disorder (e.g., antispasmodic drugs for irritable bowel syndrome)
Sedentary living			Increase physical activity level
Structural abnormalities			Local treatment
Anorectal disorders (fissures, thrombosed hemorrhoids, rectocele)
Strictures
Tumors
Endocrine/metabolic disorders			Correct underlying metabolic disorder, and give supplements as needed
Hypercalcemia
Hypokalemia
Hypothyroidism
Neurogenic disorders			Use enemas for symptomatic treatment; look for underlying metabolic conditions that may contribute to the constipation; in patients with Parkinson's disease, it may be helpful to increase the dosage of dopaminergic medication
Cerebrovascular events
Parkinson's disease
Spinal cord tumors
Trauma
Smooth muscle or connective tissue disorders			No specific treatment
Amyloidosis
Scleroderma
Medications			Switch medication class, or stop offending medication(s); checkc over-the-counter and herbal and other homeopathic preparations as possible causes and stop use if implicated
	Analgesic drugs
		Narcotics
		Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
	Antacids
		Aluminum hydroxide
		Calcium carbonate
	Anticholinergic drugs
	Antidepressant drugs
		Tricyclic antidepressants
		Lithium
	Antihypertensive and antiarrhythmic drugs
		Calcium channel blockers, especially verapamil (Calan)
	Metals
		Bismuth
		Iron
		Heavy metals
	Sympathomimetic drugs
		Pseudoephedrine
	Psychogenic (especially depression)		Treat with counseling and, if necessary, drugs