Infectious/inflammatory

Men: prostatitis, prostate abscess, balanitis

Women: vulvovaginitis, vaginal lichen planus

Men and women: urinary tract infection, cystitis, Guillain-Barré syndrome, herpes simplex virus, periurethral abscess, urethritis, transverse myelitis

Neurologic

Men and women: spinal cord injuries, progressive neurologic disease, diabetic neuropathy, stroke

Obstructive

Men: benign prostatic hyperplasia, meatal stenosis, phimosis, prostate cancer

Women: pelvic organ prolapse, pelvic mass, uterine fibroids

Men and women: bladder calculi, bladder neoplasm, fecal impaction, gastrointestinal or retroperitoneal mass, urethral stricture

Other conditions

Men: penile trauma, fracture, or laceration

Women: urethral sphincter dysfunction

Men and women: obstructed urinary catheter, disruption of posterior urethra and bladder neck associated with trauma, postoperative complication

Medications

Antiarrhythmics: disopyramide (Norpace), procainamide, quinidine

Anticholinergics: belladonna, dicyclomine (Bentyl), hyoscyamine (Levsin), oxybutynin (Ditropan), scopolamine

Antidepressants: amitriptyline, doxepin, imipramine (Tofranil), nortriptyline (Pamelor)

Antihistamines: chlorpheniramine, diphenhydramine (Benadryl), hydroxyzine (Vistaril)

Antihypertensives: hydralazine, nifedipine (Procardia)

Antiparkinsonian medications: amantadine, benztropine (Cogentin), bromocriptine (Parlodel), levodopa

Antipsychotics: chlorpromazine, fluphenazine, haloperidol (formerly Haldol), prochlorperazine (formerly Compazine)

Hormones: estrogen, progesterone, testosterone

Muscle relaxants: baclofen (Lioresal), cyclobenzaprine (Flexeril), diazepam (Valium)

Sympathomimetics: phenylephrine, pseudoephedrine

Miscellaneous: analgesics, anesthetics, carbamazepine (Tegretol), nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, opioids