Choledocholithiasis (40% of cases)3
Chronic alcohol use or abuse (35% of cases)5
Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (4% of cases)3
Medication use (2% of cases; e.g., azathioprine [Imuran], didanosine [Videx], estrogens, furosemide [Lasix], pentamidine [Pentam 300], sulfonamides, tetracycline, valproic acid [Depakene])3
Abdominal trauma (1.5% of cases)3
Other
	Abnormalities of the pancreas (annular pancreas, pancreas divisum, sphincter of Oddi dysfunction)3,4
	Autoimmune disorders3
	Hereditary factors5
	Hypercalcemia (excessive vitamin D therapy, hyperparathyroidism, total parenteral nutrition)3,4
	Hypertriglyceridemia3,4
	Infections (viral, bacterial, fungal, and parasitic)6
	Surgical procedures3
	Toxins (scorpion or snake bites)3
	Tumors4
	Vascular abnormalities (ischemia, vasculitis)3