References - Foot Conditions in Adults

Angela Cherry; Kairi Horsley; Lynnette A. Morrison; Cassandra Clayborne

Armstrong DG, Tan TW, Boulton AJM, et al. Diabetic foot ulcers: a review. JAMA. 2023;330(1):62-75.

Atkin L, Bućko Z, Conde Montero E, et al. Implementing TIMERS: the race against hard-to-heal wounds. J Wound Care. 2019;28(Sup3a):S1-S50.

Schaper NC, van Netten JJ, Apelqvist J, et al. IWGDF guidelines on the prevention and management of diabetic foot disease. IWGDF; 2023. Accessed July 14, 2025. https://iwgdfguidelines.org/guidelines-2023/

Mponponsuo K, Sibbald RG, Somayaji R. A comprehensive review of the pathogenesis, diagnosis, and management of diabetic foot infections. Adv Skin Wound Care. 2021;34(11):574-581.

American Diabetes Association Professional Practice Committee. 12. Retinopathy, neuropathy, and foot care: standards of care in diabetes-2025. Diabetes Care. 2025;48(1 suppl 1):S252-S265.

European Pressure Ulcer Advisory Panel; National Pressure Injury Advisory Panel; Pan Pacific Pressure Injury Alliance. Prevention and Treatment of Pressure Ulcers/Injuries: Clinical Practice Guideline. The International Guideline. EPUAP/NPIAP/PPPIA; 2019.

Singer AJ, Tassiopoulos A, Kirsner RS. Evaluation and management of lower-extremity ulcers. N Engl J Med. 2017;377(16):1559-1567.

Akinlotan MA, Primm K, Bolin JN, et al. Racial, rural, and regional disparities in diabetes-related lower-extremity amputation rates, 2009-2017. Diabetes Care. 2021;44(9):2053-2060.

Tan TW, Shih CD, Concha-Moore KC, et al. Disparities in outcomes of patients admitted with diabetic foot infections. PLoS One. 2019;14(2):e0211481.

Boulton AJ, Armstrong DG, Albert SF, et al. Comprehensive foot examination and risk assessment: a report of the task force of the foot care interest group of the American Diabetes Association, with endorsement by the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists. Diabetes Care. 2008;31(8):1679-1685.

Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services. Therapeutic Shoes for Persons with Diabetes. IWGDF; 2023. Accessed July 14, 2025. https://www.cms.gov/medicare-coverage-database/view/article.aspx?articleId=52501

Miller JD, Carter E, Shih J, et al. How to do a 3-minute diabetic foot exam. J Fam Pract. 2014;63(11):646-656.

Dhoonmoon L, Nair HKR, Abbas Z, et al. International consensus document. Wound care and skin tone. Signs, symptoms, and terminology for all skin tones. Wounds International; 2023.

Frykberg RG, Zgonis T, Armstrong DG, et al. Diabetic foot disorders. a clinical practice guideline (2006 revision). J Foot Ankle Surg. 2006;45(5 suppl):S1-S66.

Ince P, Abbas ZG, Lutale JK, et al. Use of the SINBAD classification system and score in comparing outcome of foot ulcer management on three continents. Diabetes Care. 2008;31(5):964-967.

Rader AJ, Barry TP. The football: an intuitive dressing for offloading neuropathic plantar forefoot ulcerations. Int Wound J. 2008;5(1):69-73.

Rader AJ, Barry T. Football dressing for neuropathic forefoot ulcerations. Wounds. 2006;18:85-91.

Leung AK, Barankin B, Lam JM, et al. Tinea pedis: an updated review. Drugs Context. 2023;12:2023-5-1.

Kruithoff C, Gamal A, McCormick TS, et al. Dermatophyte infections worldwide: increase in incidence and associated antifungal resistance. Life (Basel). 2023;14(1):1.

Leung AKC, Barankin B. Tinea pedis. Aperito J Dermatol. 2015;2:109.

Bell-Syer SEM, Khan SM, Torgerson DJ. Oral treatments for fungal infections of the skin of the foot. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012(10):CD003584.

Ponka D, Baddar F. Microscopic potassium hydroxide preparation. Can Fam Physician. 2014;60(1):57.

Kaushik N, Pujalte GGA, Reese ST. Superficial fungal infections. Prim Care. 2015;42(4):501-516.

Alter SJ, McDonald MB, Schloemer J, et al. Common child and adolescent cutaneous infestations and fungal infections. Curr Probl Pediatr Adolesc Health Care. 2018;48(1):3-25.

Nowicka D, Nawrot U. Tinea pedis-an embarrassing problem for health and beauty-a narrative review. Mycoses. 2021;64(10):1140-1150.

Rasner CJ, Kullberg SA, Pearson DR, et al. Diagnosis and management of plantar dermatoses. J Am Board Fam Med. 2022;35(2):435-442.

Field LA, Adams BB. Tinea pedis in athletes. Int J Dermatol. 2008;47(5):485-492.

Kovitwanichkanont T, Chong AH. Superficial fungal infections. Aust J Gen Pract. 2019;48(10):706-711.

Weinberg JM, Koestenblatt EK. Treatment of interdigital tinea pedis: once-daily therapy with sertaconazole nitrate. J Drugs Dermatol. 2011;10(10):1135-1140.

Sfyri E, Tertipi N, Kefala V, et al. Prevalence of plantar warts, genital warts, and herpetic infections in Greek competitive swimmers. Viruses. 2024;16(11):1782.

Murphrey MB, Miao JH, Zito PM. Histology, stratum corneum. StatPearls Publishing; 2025. Accessed July 16, 2025. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK513299/

Crawford F, Hollis S. Topical treatments for fungal infections of the skin and nails of the foot. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007(3):CD001434.

Ward H, Parkes N, Smith C, et al. Consensus for the treatment of tinea pedis: a systematic review of randomised controlled trials. J Fungi (Basel). 2022;8(4):351.

Witchey DJ, Witchey NB, Roth-Kauffman MM, et al. Plantar warts: epidemiology, pathophysiology, and clinical management. J Am Osteopath Assoc. 2018;118(2):92-105.

Al Aboud AM, Nigam PK. Wart. StatPearls Publishing; 2025. Accessed July 16, 2025. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK431047/

Zhu P, Qi RQ, Yang Y, et al. Clinical guideline for the diagnosis and treatment of cutaneous warts (2022). J Evid Based Med. 2022;15(3):284-301.

Pisani V. Plantar wart / callus-corn. Eur J Pediatr Dermatol. 2015;25(2):68-69.

Singh D, Bentley G, Trevino SG. Callosities, corns, and calluses. BMJ. 1996;312(7043):1403-1406.

Pennycook KM, McCready TA. Clavus (Archived). StatPearls Publishing; 2025. Accessed August 18, 2025. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK546598/

Al Rudaisat M, Cheng H. Dermoscopy features of cutaneous warts. Int J Gen Med. 2021;14:9903-9912.

Bhatti A, Chowdhary S, Ferrise T, et al. Plantar verruca and dermoscopy: an update. Clin Podiatr Med Surg. 2021;38(4):513-520.

Kwok CS, Gibbs S, Bennett C, et al. Topical treatments for cutaneous warts. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012(9):CD001781.

Clebak KT, Mendez-Miller M, Croad J. Cutaneous cryosurgery for common skin conditions. Am Fam Physician. 2020;101(7):399-406.

García-Oreja S, Álvaro-Afonso FJ, Tardáguila-García A, et al. Efficacy of cryotherapy for plantar warts: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Dermatol Ther (Heidelb). 2022;35(6):e15480.

Maxwell J, Lam JM. Multiple malodorous pitted craters over the feet: pitted keratolysis. Paediatr Child Health. 2021;26(7):390-391.

Kaptanoglu AF, Yuksel O, Ozyurt S. Plantar pitted keratolysis: a study from non-risk groups. Dermatol Rep. 2012;4(1):e4.

Vanore JV, Christensen JC, Kravitz SR, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of first metatarsophalangeal joint disorders. Section 1: hallux valgus. J Foot Ankle Surg. 2003;42(3):112-123.

Cai Y, Song Y, He M, et al. Global prevalence and incidence of hallux valgus: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Foot Ankle Res. 2023;16(1):63.

Piqué-Vidal C, Solé MT, Antich J. Hallux valgus inheritance: pedigree research in 350 patients with bunion deformity. J Foot Ankle Surg. 2007;46(3):149-154.

Meyr AJ, Adams ML, Sheridan MJ, et al. Epidemiological aspects of the surgical correction of structural forefoot pathology. J Foot Ankle Surg. 2009;48(5):543-551.

Boulton AJ, Armstrong DG, Albert SF, et al. Comprehensive foot examination and risk assessment: a report of the task force of the foot care interest group of the American Diabetes Association, with endorsement by the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists. Diabetes Care. 2008;31(8):1679-1685.

Khan MJ, Apetuje MD, Cheng E, et al. The reliability of common radiographic measurements used to describe foot deformities. J Foot Ankle Surg. 2024;63(1):64-73.

Becker BA, Childress MA. Common foot problems: over-the-counter treatments and home care. Am Fam Physician. 2018;98(5):298-303.

Hecht PJ, Lin TJ. Hallux valgus. Med Clin North Am. 2014;98(2):227-232.

Dias CG, Godoy-Santos AL, Ferrari J, et al. Surgical interventions for treating hallux valgus and bunions. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2024(7):CD013726.

Roukis TS, Piraino JA, Hollawell S, et al. ACFAS clinical consensus statements: Hallux rigidus. J Foot Ankle Surg. 2024;63(6):624-630.

Saxena A. The Valenti procedure for hallux limitus/rigidus. J Foot Ankle Surg. 1995;34(5):485-488 , discussion 511.

Vanore JV, Christensen JC, Kravitz SR, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of first metatarsophalangeal joint disorders. Section 2: hallux rigidus. J Foot Ankle Surg. 2003;42(3):124-136.

Meyr AJ, Mbanuzue QJ, Sheridan MJ, et al. The laterality of the surgical correction of forefoot pathology. J Foot Ankle Surg. 2009;48(5):552-557.

Alshehri AS, Alzahrani FA, Alqahtani LS, et al. Outcomes of operative versus nonoperative management for hallux rigidus: a tertiary care center experience. Cureus. 2023;15(10):e46991.

Pickwell KM, Siersma VD, Kars M, et al. Diabetic foot disease: impact of ulcer location on ulcer healing. Diabetes Metab Res Rev. 2013;29(5):377-383.

Thomas JL, Blitch EL, Chaney DM, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of forefoot disorders. Section 1: digital deformities. J Foot Ankle Surg. 2009;48(2):230-238.

Sanz-Corbalán I, Lázaro-Martínez JL, García-Álvarez Y, et al. Digital deformity assessment prior to percutaneous flexor tenotomy for managing diabetic foot ulcers on the toes. J Foot Ankle Surg. 2019;58(3):453-457.

Boberg JS, Willis JJ. Lesser digital deformities: etiology, procedural selection, and arthroplasty. In: SoutherlandJT, ed. McGlamry’s Comprehensive Textbook of Foot and Ankle Surgery. 4th ed. Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2012:1:124-128.

Shimbo K, Okuhara Y, Yokota K. Effectiveness of flexor tenotomy with a transpositional skin flap for the treatment of severe claw toe deformity with mild-to-moderate joint contracture. J Foot Ankle Surg. 2021;60(6):1290-1292.

Okamura K, Fukuda K, Oki S, et al. Effects of plantar intrinsic foot muscle strengthening exercise on static and dynamic foot kinematics: a pilot randomized controlled single-blind trial in individuals with pes planus. Gait Posture. 2020;75:40-45.

Kodithuwakku Arachchige SNK, Chander H, Knight A. Flatfeet: biomechanical implications, assessment and management. Foot (Edinb). 2019;38:81-85.

Seaman TJ, Ball TA. Pes cavus. StatPearls Publishing; 2023. Accessed July 21, 2025. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK556016/

Yildiz K, Cetin T. Interobserver reliability in the radiological evaluation of flatfoot (pes planus) deformity: a cross-sectional study. J Foot Ankle Surg. 2022;61(5):1065-1070.

Farci F, Mahabal GD. Hyperkeratosis. StatPearls Publishing; 2023. Accessed July 23, 2025. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562206/?report=printable

Pisani V. Plantar wart/callus-corn. Eur J Pediatr Dermatol. 2015;25(2):68-69.

Singh D, Bentley G, Trevino SG. Callosities, corns, and calluses. BMJ. 1996;312(7043):1403-1406.

Pennycook KM, McCready TA. Clavus (Archived). StatPearls Publishing; 2025. Accessed August 18, 2025. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK546598/

Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services. Billing and coding. Foot care. 2024. Accessed July 23, 2025. https://www.cms.gov/medicare-coverage-database/view/article.aspx?articleId=56232

Colbert LH, Hootman JM, Macera CA. Physical activity-related injuries in walkers and runners in the aerobics center longitudinal study. Clin J Sport Med. 2000;10(4):259-263.

Maffulli N, Sharma P, Luscombe KL. Achilles tendinopathy: aetiology and management. J R Soc Med. 2004;97(10):472-476.

Paavola M, Kannus P, Järvinen TAH, et al. Achilles tendinopathy. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2002;84(11):2062-2076.

Magnan B, Bondi M, Pierantoni S, et al. The pathogenesis of Achilles tendinopathy: a systematic review. Foot Ankle Surg. 2014;20(3):154-159.

Claessen FM, de Vos RJ, Reijman M, et al. Predictors of primary Achilles tendon ruptures. Sports Med. 2014;44(9):1241-1259.

Singh D. Acute Achilles tendon rupture. Br J Sports Med. 2017;51(15):1158-1160.

Beekman KM, Kuijer PPFM, Maas M. Imaging of overuse injuries of the ankle and foot in sport and work. Radiol Clin North Am. 2023;61(2):307-318.

Tu P, Bytomski JR. Heel pain: diagnosis and management. Am Fam Physician. 2018;97(2):86-93.

von Rickenbach KJ, Borgstrom H, Tenforde A, et al. Achilles tendinopathy: evaluation, rehabilitation, and prevention. Curr Sports Med Rep. 2021;20(6):327-334.

Pękala PA, Henry BM, Pękala JR, et al. The Achilles tendon and the retrocalcaneal bursa: an anatomical and radiological study. Bone Joint Res. 2017;6(7):446-451.

Thomas JL, Christensen JC, Kravitz SR, et al. The diagnosis and treatment of heel pain: a clinical practice guideline-revision 2010. J Foot Ankle Surg. 2010;49(3 suppl):S1-S19.

Kang S, Thordarson DB, Charlton TP. Insertional Achilles tendinitis and Haglund’s deformity. Foot Ankle Int. 2012;33(6):487-491.

Aronow MS. Posterior heel pain (retrocalcaneal bursitis, insertional and noninsertional Achilles tendinopathy). Clin Podiatr Med Surg. 2005;22(1):19-43.

Fares MY, Baydoun H, Khachfe HH, et al. Clinical and diagnostic characteristics of calcaneal apophysitis: a systematic review and thematic analysis. J Am Podiatr Med Assoc. 2023;113(4):22-083.

Alfredson H, Cook J. A treatment algorithm for managing Achilles tendinopathy: new treatment options. Br J Sports Med. 2007;41(4):211-216.

Challoumas D, Crosbie G, O’Neill S, et al. Effectiveness of exercise treatments with or without adjuncts for common lower limb tendinopathies: a living systematic review and network meta-analysis. Sports Med Open. 2023;9(1):71.

Moraes VY, Lenza M, Tamaoki MJ, et al. Platelet-rich therapies for musculoskeletal soft tissue injuries. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013(12):CD010071.

Stoychev V, Finestone AS, Kalichman L. Dry needling as a treatment modality for tendinopathy: a narrative review. Curr Rev Musculoskelet Med. 2020;13(1):133-140.

Simplicio CL, Purita J, Murrell W, et al. Extracorporeal shock wave therapy mechanisms in musculoskeletal regenerative medicine. J Clin Orthop Trauma. 2020;11(suppl 3):S309-S318.

Lohrer H, David S, Nauck T. Surgical treatment for Achilles tendinopathy—a systematic review. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2016;17:207.

Adams WR. Morton’s neuroma. Clin Podiatr Med Surg. 2010;27(4):535-545.

Ganguly A, Warner J, Aniq H. Central metatarsalgia and walking on pebbles: beyond Morton neuroma. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2018;210(4):821-833.

Wu KK. Morton neuroma and metatarsalgia. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2000;12(2):131-142.

Burke L, Barber K, Cali M, et al. Ankle and foot overuse disorders. PM&RKnowledgeNow. Updated June 22,2022. Accessed July 24, 2025. https://now.aapmr.org/ankle-and-foot-overuse-disorders/

Pitcher M, Moulson A, Pitcher D, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of subjective features and physical examination tests for morton neuroma: a systematic review. Foot Ankle Orthop. 2024;9(4):24730114241291055.

Lee MJ, Kim S, Huh YM, et al. Morton neuroma: evaluated with ultrasonography and MR imaging. Korean J Radiol. 2007;8(2):148-155.

Matthews BG, Thomson CE, Harding MP, et al. Treatments for Morton’s neuroma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2024(2):CD014687.

Ross AB, Jacobs A, Williams KL, et al. Ultrasound-guided injection treatments versus surgical neurectomy for Morton neuroma: a cost-effectiveness analysis. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2022;218(2):234-240.

Richardson DR, Dean EM. The recurrent Morton neuroma: what now? Foot Ankle Clin. 2014;19(3):437-449.

Motley T. Plantar fasciitis/fasciosis. Clin Podiatr Med Surg. 2021;38(2):193-200.

Thomas MJ, Roddy E, Zhang W, et al. The population prevalence of foot and ankle pain in middle and old age: a systematic review. Pain. 2011;152(12):2879-2800.

Patel A, DiGiovanni B. Association between plantar fasciitis and isolated contracture of the gastrocnemius. Foot Ankle Int. 2011;32(1):5-8.

Johal KS, Milner SA. Plantar fasciitis and the calcaneal spur: fact or fiction? Foot Ankle Surg. 2012;18(1):39-41.

Schneider HP, Baca JM, Carpenter BB, et al. American College of Foot and Ankle Surgeons clinical consensus statement: diagnosis and treatment of adult acquired infracalcaneal heel pain. J Foot Ankle Surg. 2018;57:370-381.

Draghi F, Gitto S, Bortolotto C, et al. Imaging of plantar fascia disorders: findings on plain radiography, ultrasound and magnetic resonance imaging. Insights Imaging. 2017;8(1):69-78.

Uğurlar M, Sönmez MM, Uğurlar OY, et al. Effectiveness of four different treatment modalities in the treatment of chronic plantar fasciitis during a 36-month follow-up period: a randomized controlled trial. J Foot Ankle Surg. 2018;57(5):913-918.

Becker BA, Childress MA. Common foot problems: over-the-counter treatments and home care. Am Fam Physician. 2018;98(5):298-303.

Hawke F, Burns J, Radford JA, et al. Custom-made foot orthoses for the treatment of foot pain. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008(3):CD006801.

Digiovanni BF, Nawoczenski DA, Lintal ME, et al. Tissue-specific plantar fascia–stretching exercise enhances outcomes in patients with chronic heel pain. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2003;85(7):1270-1207.

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