References

  1. 1.Baranwal N, Yu PK, Siegel NS. Sleep physiology, pathophysiology, and sleep hygiene. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2023;77:59-69.
  2. 2.Patel AK, Reddy V, Shumway KR, et al. Physiology, sleep stages. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK526132/
  3. 3.Carley DW, Farabi SS. Physiology of sleep. Diabetes Spectr. 2016;29(1):5-9.
  4. 4.Boutin A, Doyon J. A sleep spindle framework for motor memory consolidation. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2020;375(1799):20190232.
  5. 5.Weighall A, Kellar I. Sleep and memory consolidation in healthy, neurotypical children, and adults: a summary of systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Emerg Top Life Sci. 2023;7(5):513-524.
  6. 6.Shrivastava D, Jung S, Saadat M, et al. How to interpret the results of a sleep study. J Community Hosp Intern Med Perspect. 2014;4(5):24983.
  7. 7.Hirshkowitz M. Polysomnography challenges. Sleep Med Clin. 2016;11(4):403-411.
  8. 8.Rundo JV, Downey R. Polysomnography. Handb Clin Neurol. 2019;160:381-392.
  9. 9.Troester MM, Quan SF, Berry RB, et al. The AASM Manual for the Scoring of Sleep and Associated Events: Rules, Terminology, and Technical Specifications. TroesterMMQuanSFBerryRBet al. The AASM Manual for the Scoring of Sleep and Associated Events: Rules, Terminology, and Technical Specifications. Version 3. American Academy of Sleep Medicine; 2023.
  10. 10.Mysliwiec V, Martin JL, Ulmer CS, et al. The management of chronic insomnia disorder and obstructive sleep apnea: synopsis of the 2019 U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs and U.S. Department of Defense clinical practice guidelines. Ann Intern Med. 2020;172(5):325-336.
  11. 11.Goldstein CA, Karnib H, Williams K, et al. The utility of home sleep apnea tests in patients with low versus high pre-test probability for moderate to severe OSA. Sleep Breath. 2018;22(3):641-651.
  12. 12.Chung F, Yegneswaran B, Liao P, et al. STOP questionnaire: a tool to screen patients for obstructive sleep apnea. Anesthesiology. 2008;108(5):812-821.
  13. 13.Lee T, Cho Y, Cha KS, et al. Accuracy of 11 wearable, nearable, and airable consumer sleep trackers: prospective multicenter validation study. JMIR Mhealth Uhealth. 2023;11:e50983.
  14. 14.de Zambotti M, Cellini N, Goldstone A, et al. Wearable sleep technology in clinical and research settings. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2019;51(7):1538-1557.
  15. 15.Ibáñez V, Silva J, Navarro E, et al. Sleep assessment devices: types, market analysis, and a critical view on accuracy and validation. Expert Rev Med Devices. 2019;16(12):1041-1052.
  16. 16.Chaput JP, Dutil C, Sampasa-Kanyinga H. Sleeping hours: what is the ideal number and how does age impact this? Nat Sci Sleep. 2018;10:421-430.
  17. 17.Hirshkowitz WK, Albert SM, et al. National Sleep Foundation’s updated sleep duration recommendations: final report. Sleep Health. 2015;1(4):233-243.
  18. 18.Li J, Vitiello MV, Gooneratne NS. Sleep in normal aging. Sleep Med Clin. 2018;13(1):1-11.
  19. 19.Edwards BA, O’Driscoll DM, Ali A, et al. Aging and sleep: physiology and pathophysiology. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2010;31(5):618-633.
  20. 20.O’Callaghan VS, Hansell NK, Guo W, et al. Genetic and environmental influences on sleep-wake behaviors in adolescence. Sleep Adv. 2021;2(1):zpab018.
  21. 21.Leger KA, Charles ST, Fingerman KL. Affect variability and sleep: emotional ups and downs are related to a poorer night’s rest. J Psychosom Res. 2019;124:109758.
  22. 22.Silvani MI, Werder R, Perret C. The influence of blue light on sleep, performance and wellbeing in young adults: a systematic review. Front Physiol. 2022;13:943108.
  23. 23.O’Callaghan F, Muurlink O, Reid N. Effects of caffeine on sleep quality and daytime functioning. Risk Manag Healthc Policy. 2018;11:263-271.
  24. 24.Tung P, Levitzky YS, Wang R, et al. Obstructive and central sleep apnea and the risk of incident atrial fibrillation in a community cohort of men and women. J Am Heart Assoc. 2017;6(7):e004500.
  25. 25.Pan Y, Zhou Y, Shi X, et al. The association between sleep deprivation and the risk of cardiovascular diseases: a systematic meta-analysis. Biomed Rep. 2023;19(5):78.
  26. 26.Covassin N, Singh P. Sleep duration and cardiovascular disease risk: epidemiologic and experimental evidence. Sleep Med Clin. 2016;11(1):81-89.
  27. 27.Cooper CB, Neufeld EV, Dolezal BA, et al. Sleep deprivation and obesity in adults: a brief narrative review. BMJ Open Sport Exerc Med. 2018;4(1):e000392.
  28. 28.Garbarino S, Lanteri P, Bragazzi NL, et al. Role of sleep deprivation in immune-related disease risk and outcomes. Commun Biol. 2021;4(1):1304.
  29. 29.Wang Q, Hu S, Pan NC, et al. Association of sleep complaints with all-cause and heart disease mortality among US adults. Front Public Health. 2023;11:1043347.
  30. 30.Khan MA, Al-Jahdali H. The consequences of sleep deprivation on cognitive performance. Neurosciences (Riyadh). 2023;28(2):91-99.
  31. 31.Ma Y, Liang L, Zheng F, et al. Association between sleep duration and cognitive decline. JAMA Netw Open. 2020;3(9):e2013573.
  32. 32.Hafner M, Stepanek M, Taylor J, et al. Why sleep matters—the economic costs of insufficient sleep: a cross-country comparative analysis. Rand Health Q. 2017;6(4):11.
  33. 33.Kudrnáčová M, Kudrnáč A. Better sleep, better life? Testing the role of sleep on quality of life. PLoS One. 2023;18(3):e0282085.
  34. 34.Medic G, Wille M, Hemels ME. Short- and long-term health consequences of sleep disruption. Nat Sci Sleep. 2017;9:151-161.
  35. 35.Lee VV, Schembri R, Jordan AS, et al. The independent effects of sleep deprivation and sleep fragmentation on processing of emotional information. Behav Brain Res. 2022;424:113802.
  36. 36.Bean CAL, Ciesla JA. Naturalistic partial sleep deprivation leads to greater next-day anxiety: the moderating role of baseline anxiety and depression. Behav Ther. 2021;52(4):861-873.
  37. 37.Fang H, Tu S, Sheng J, et al. Depression in sleep disturbance: a review on a bidirectional relationship, mechanisms and treatment. J Cell Mol Med. 2019;23(4):2324-2332.
  38. 38.Yellman MA, Sauber-Schatz EK. Motor vehicle crash deaths – United States and 28 other high-income countries, 2015 and 2019. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2022;71(26):837-843.
  39. 39.Kalsi J, Tervo T, Bachour A, et al. Sleep versus non-sleep-related fatal road accidents. Sleep Med. 2018;51:148-152.
  40. 40.Sprajcer M, Dawson D, Kosmadopoulos A, et al. How tired is too tired to drive? A systematic review assessing the use of prior sleep duration to detect driving impairment. Nat Sci Sleep. 2023;15:175-206.
  41. 41.Lee J, Cho SS, Kim J, et al. Association between sleep disturbance and occupational injury among Korean employees. Ann Occup Environ Med. 2021;33:e29.
  42. 42.Ruggiero JS, Redeker NS. Effects of napping on sleepiness and sleep-related performance deficits in night-shift workers: a systematic review. Biol Res Nurs. 2014;16(2):134-142.
  43. 43.McDevitt EA, Sattari N, Duggan KA, et al. The impact of frequent napping and nap practice on sleep-dependent memory in humans. Sci Rep. 2018;8(1):15053.
  44. 44.Patterson PD, Ghen JD, Antoon SF, et al. Does evidence support “banking/extending sleep” by shift workers to mitigate fatigue, and/or to improve health, safety, or performance? A systematic review. Sleep Health. 2019;5(4):359-369.
  45. 45.Leger D, Richard JB, Collin O, et al. Napping and weekend catchup sleep do not fully compensate for high rates of sleep debt and short sleep at a population level (in a representative nationwide sample of 12,637 adults). Sleep Med. 2020;74:278-288.
  46. 46.Jike M, Itani O, Watanabe N, et al. Long sleep duration and health outcomes: a systematic review, meta-analysis and meta-regression. Sleep Med Rev. 2018;39:25-36.
  47. 47.Léger D, Beck F, Richard JB, et al. The risks of sleeping “too much”. Survey of a National Representative Sample of 24671 adults (INPES health barometer). PLoS One. 2014;9(9):e106950.
  1. 1.Singh B, McArdle N, Hillman D. Psychopharmacology of sleep disorders. Handb Clin Neurol. 2019;165:345-364.
  2. 2.Chattu VK, Manzar MD, Kumary S, et al. The global problem of insufficient sleep and its serious public health implications. Healthcare (Basel). 2018;7(1):1.
  3. 3.Choshen-Hillel S, Ishqer A, Mahameed F, et al. Acute and chronic sleep deprivation in residents: cognition and stress biomarkers. Med Educ. 2021;55(2):174-184.
  4. 4.Khaled SM, Petcu C, Al-Thani MA, et al. Prevalence and associated factors of DSM-5 insomnia disorder in the general population of Qatar. BMC Psychiatry. 2021;21(1):84.
  5. 5.Seow LSE, Verma SK, Mok YM, et al. Evaluating DSM-5 insomnia disorder and the treatment of sleep problems in a psychiatric population. J Clin Sleep Med. 2018;14(2):237-244.
  6. 6.Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 5th ed. Text revision. American Psychiatric Association; 2022.
  7. 7.Vargas I, Nguyen AM, Muench A, et al. Acute and chronic insomnia: what has time and/or hyperarousal got to do with it? Brain Sci. 2020;10(2):71.
  8. 8.Jaqua EE, Hanna M, Labib W, et al. Common sleep disorders affecting older adults. Perm J. 2023;27(1):122-132.
  9. 9.Pchelina PV, Poluektov MG. The primary or secondary origin of insomnias. Neurosci Behav Physiol. 2022;52(2):223-230.
  10. 10.Morin CM, Jarrin DC. Epidemiology of insomnia: prevalence, course, risk factors, and public health burden. Sleep Med Clin. 2022;17(2):173-191.
  11. 11.Riemann D, Espie CA, Altena E, et al. The European insomnia guideline: an update on the diagnosis and treatment of insomnia 2023. J Sleep Res. 2023;32(6):e14035.
  12. 12.Cohen ZL, Eigenberger PM, Sharkey KM, et al. Insomnia and other sleep disorders in older adults. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 2022;45(4):717-734.
  13. 13.Sun SY, Chen GH. Treatment of circadian rhythm sleep-wake disorders. Curr Neuropharmacol. 2022;20(6):1022-1034.
  14. 14.Van Gastel A. Drug-induced insomnia and excessive sleepiness. Sleep Med Clin. 2018;13(2):147-159.
  15. 15.Liu J, Ghastine L, Um P, et al. Environmental exposures and sleep outcomes: a review of evidence, potential mechanisms, and implications. Environ Res. 2021;196:110406.
  16. 16.Wallace DA, Gallagher JP, Peterson SR, et al. Is exposure to chemical pollutants associated with sleep outcomes? A systematic review. Sleep Med Rev. 2023;70:101805.
  17. 17.Chaput JP, Shiau J. Routinely assessing patients’ sleep health is time well spent. Prev Med Rep. 2019;14:100851.
  18. 18.Lloyd RM, Crawford T, Donald R, et al. Quality measure for screening for adult obstructive sleep apnea by primary care providers: 2024 update after measure maintenance. J Clin Sleep Med. 2024;20(11):1819-1822.
  19. 19.American Diabetes Association Professional Practice Committee. 5. Facilitating positive health behaviors and well-being to improve health outcomes: standards of care in diabetes—2025. Diabetes Care. 2025;48(1 suppl 1):S86-S127.
  20. 20.Yamamoto M, Lim CT, Huang H, et al. Insomnia in primary care: considerations for screening, assessment, and management. J Med Access. 2023;7:27550834231156727.
  21. 21.Alt JA, DeConde AS, Mace JC, et al. Quality of life in patients with chronic rhinosinusitis and sleep dysfunction undergoing endoscopic sinus surgery: a pilot investigation of comorbid obstructive sleep apnea. JAMA Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2015;141(10):873-881.
  22. 22.Kristbergsdottir H, Schmitz L, Arnardottir ES, et al. Evaluating user compliance in mobile health apps: insights from a 90-day study using a digital sleep diary. Diagnostics (Basel). 2023;13(18):2883.
  23. 23.Bonnet MH, Burton GG, Arand DL. Physiological and medical findings in insomnia: implications for diagnosis and care. Sleep Med Rev. 2014;18(2):111-122.
  24. 24.Abboud M. Vitamin D supplementation and sleep: a systematic review and meta-analysis of intervention studies. Nutrients. 2022;14(5):1076.
  25. 25.Lehrer HM, Yao Z, Krafty RT, et al. Comparing polysomnography, actigraphy, and sleep diary in the home environment: the Study of Women’s Health Across the Nation (SWAN) sleep study. Sleep Adv. 2022;3(1):zpac001.
  26. 26.Alahmary SA, Alduhaylib SA, Alkawii HA, et al. Relationship between added sugar intake and sleep quality among university students: a cross-sectional study. Am J Lifestyle Med. 2019;16(1):122-129.
  27. 27.Krystal AD, Prather AA, Ashbrook LH. The assessment and management of insomnia: an update. World Psychiatry. 2019;18(3):337-352.
  28. 28.Monderer R, Ahmed IM, Thorpy M. Evaluation of the sleepy patient: differential diagnosis. Sleep Med Clin. 2020;15(2):155-166.
  29. 29.Sutton EL. Insomnia. Ann Intern Med. 2021;174(3):ITC33-ITC48.
  30. 30.Suzuki K, Miyamoto M, Hirata K. Sleep disorders in the elderly: diagnosis and management. J Gen Fam Med. 2017;18(2):61-71.
  31. 31.Cho YW, Kim KT, Moon HJ, et al. Comorbid insomnia with obstructive sleep apnea: clinical characteristics and risk factors. J Clin Sleep Med. 2018;14(3):409-417.
  32. 32.Sweetman A, Lack L, Crawford M, et al. Comorbid insomnia and sleep apnea: assessment and management approaches. Sleep Med Clin. 2022;17(4):597-617.
  33. 33.Janssen HCJP, Venekamp LN, Peeters GAM, et al. Management of insomnia in sleep disordered breathing. Eur Respir Rev. 2019;28(153):190080.
  34. 34.Perlis ML, Posner D, Riemann D, et al. Insomnia. Lancet. 2022;400(10357):1047-1060.
  35. 35.Bollu PC, Kaur H. Sleep medicine: insomnia and sleep. Mo Med. 2019;116(1):68-75.
  36. 36.Edinger JD, Arnedt JT, Bertisch SM, et al. Behavioral and psychological treatments for chronic insomnia disorder in adults: an American Academy of Sleep Medicine clinical practice guideline. J Clin Sleep Med. 2021;17(2):255-262.
  37. 37.Burry L, Turner J, Morgenthaler T, et al. Addressing barriers to reducing prescribing and implementing deprescribing of sedative-hypnotics in primary care. Ann Pharmacother. 2022;56(4):463-474.
  38. 38.Baranwal N, Yu PK, Siegel NS. Sleep physiology, pathophysiology, and sleep hygiene. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2023;77:59-69.
  39. 39.Okamoto-Mizuno K, Mizuno K. Effects of thermal environment on sleep and circadian rhythm. J Physiol Anthropol. 2012;31(1):14.
  40. 40.Pérez-Chada D, Bioch SA, Schönfeld D, et al.; Sleep in Adolescents Collaborative study group. Screen use, sleep duration, daytime somnolence, and academic failure in school-aged adolescents. PLoS One. 2023;18(2):e0281379.
  41. 41.Alshoaibi Y, Bafil W, Rahim M. The effect of screen use on sleep quality among adolescents in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. J Family Med Prim Care. 2023;12(7):1379-1388.
  42. 42.Greco V, Bergamo D, Cuoccio P, et al. Wearing an eye mask during overnight sleep improves episodic learning and alertness. Sleep (Basel). 2023;46(3):1-8.
  43. 43.Caggiari G, Talesa GR, Toro G, et al. What type of mattress should be chosen to avoid back pain and improve sleep quality? Review of the literature. J Orthop Traumatol. 2021;22(1):51.
  44. 44.Dawson SC, Krakow B, Haynes PL, et al. Use of sleep aids in insomnia: the role of time monitoring behavior. Prim Care Companion CNS Disord. 2023;25(3):22m03344.
  45. 45.De Pasquale C, El Kazzi M, Sutherland K, et al. Sleep hygiene—what do we mean? A bibliographic review. Sleep Med Rev. 2024;75:101930.
  46. 46.Vierra J, Boonla O, Prasertsri P. Effects of sleep deprivation and 4-7-8 breathing control on heart rate variability, blood pressure, blood glucose, and endothelial function in healthy young adults. Physiol Rep. 2022;10(13):e15389.
  47. 47.Xie Y, Liu S, Chen XJ, et al. Effects of exercise on sleep quality and insomnia in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Front Psychiatry. 2021;12:664499.
  48. 48.Siu PM, Yu AP, Tam BT, et al. Effects of tai chi or exercise on sleep in older adults with insomnia: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Netw Open. 2021;4(2):e2037199.
  49. 49.Matheson EM, Brown BD, DeCastro AO. Treatment of chronic insomnia in adults. Am Fam Physician. 2024;109(2):154-160.
  50. 50.Rossman J. Cognitive-behavioral therapy for insomnia: an effective and underutilized treatment for insomnia. Am J Lifestyle Med. 2019;13(6):544-547.
  51. 51.Lu M, Zhang Y, Zhang J, et al. Comparative effectiveness of digital cognitive behavioral therapy vs medication therapy among patients with insomnia. JAMA Netw Open. 2023;6(4):e237597.
  52. 52.Shah S, Schutte-Rodin S, Paruthi S, et al.; AASM Emerging Technology Committee. Digital cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia: platforms and characteristics. https://aasm.org/digital-cognitive-behavioral-therapy-for-insomnia-platforms-and-characteristics/
  53. 53.Lie JD, Tu KN, Shen DD, et al. Pharmacological treatment of insomnia. P T. 2015;40(11):759-771.
  54. 54.Dujardin S, Pijpers A, Pevernagie D. Prescription drugs used in insomnia. Sleep Med Clin. 2018;13(2):169-182.
  55. 55.Fagiolini A, González-Pinto A, Miskowiak KW, et al. Role of trazodone in treatment of major depressive disorder: an update. Ann Gen Psychiatry. 2023;22(1):32.
  56. 56.Hassinger AB, Bletnisky N, Dudekula R, et al. Selecting a pharmacotherapy regimen for patients with chronic insomnia. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2020;21(9):1035-1043.
  57. 57.Madari S, Golebiowski R, Mansukhani MP, et al. Pharmacological management of insomnia. Neurotherapeutics. 2021;18(1):44-52.
  58. 58.Maust DT, Kim HM, Seyfried LS, et al. Antipsychotics, other psychotropics, and the risk of death in patients with dementia: number needed to harm. JAMA Psychiatry. 2015;72(5):438-445.
  59. 59.Nie T, Blair HA. Daridorexant in insomnia disorder: a profile of its use. CNS Drugs. 2023;37(3):267-274.
  60. 60.Ogilvie BW, Torres R, Dressman MA, et al. Clinical assessment of drug-drug interactions of tasimelteon, a novel dual melatonin receptor agonist. J Clin Pharmacol. 2015;55(9):1004-1011.
  61. 61.Quintero GC. Review about gabapentin misuse, interactions, contraindications and side effects. J Exp Pharmacol. 2017;9:13-21.
  62. 62.Zee PC, Bertisch SM, Morin CM, et al. Long-term use of insomnia medications: an appraisal of the current clinical and scientific evidence. J Clin Med. 2023;12(4):1629.
  63. 63.De Crescenzo F, D’Alò GL, Ostinelli EG, et al. Comparative effects of pharmacological interventions for the acute and long-term management of insomnia disorder in adults: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Lancet. 2022;400(10347):170-184.
  64. 64.Sateia MJ, Buysse DJ, Krystal AD, et al. Clinical practice guideline for the pharmacologic treatment of chronic insomnia in adults: an American Academy of Sleep Medicine clinical practice guideline. J Clin Sleep Med. 2017;13(2):307-349.
  65. 65.Kokkali M, Pinioti E, Lappas AS, et al. Effects of trazodone on sleep: a systematic review and meta-analysis. CNS Drugs. 2024;38(10):753-769.
  66. 66.Liu GJ, Karim MR, Xu LL, et al. Efficacy and tolerability of gabapentin in adults with sleep disturbance in medical illness: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Front Neurol. 2017;8:316.
  67. 67.Pan B, Ge L, Lai H, et al. The comparative effectiveness and safety of insomnia drugs: a systematic review and network meta-analysis of 153 randomized trials. Drugs. 2023;83(7):587-619.
  68. 68.Yue JL, Chang XW, Zheng JW, et al. Efficacy and tolerability of pharmacological treatments for insomnia in adults: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Sleep Med Rev. 2023;68:101746.
  69. 69.Kripke DF. Hypnotic drug risks of mortality, infection, depression, and cancer: but lack of benefit. F1000 Res. 2016;5:918.
  70. 70.Pergolizzi JV, LeQuang JA, Raffa RB. Benzodiazepines: thinking outside the black box. J Clin Pharm Ther. 2021;46(3):554-559.
  71. 71.Xu C, Leung JCN, Shi J, et al. Sedative-hypnotics and osteoporotic fractures: a systematic review of observational studies with over six million individuals. Sleep Med Rev. 2024;73:101866.
  72. 72.Morin CM, Buysse DJ. Management of insomnia. N Engl J Med. 2024;391(3):247-258.
  73. 73.Choi JW, Lee J, Jung SJ, et al. Use of sedative-hypnotics and mortality: a population-based retrospective cohort study. J Clin Sleep Med. 2018;14(10):1669-1677.
  1. 1.International Classification of Sleep Disorders. International Classification of Sleep Disorders. 3rd ed., text revision. American Academy of Sleep Medicine; 2023.
  2. 2.Mainieri G, Loddo G, Provini F, et al. Diagnosis and management of NREM sleep parasomnias in children and adults. Diagnostics (Basel). 2023;13(7):1261.
  3. 3.Lundetræ RS, Saxvig IW, Pallesen S, et al. Prevalence of parasomnias in patients with obstructive sleep apnea. A registry-based cross-sectional study. Front Psychol. 2018;9:1140.
  4. 4.Augustine A. Nonrapid eye movement parasomnias. J Clin Neurophysiol. 2023;40(3):224-229.
  5. 5.Spector AR. Non-REM sleep parasomnias. Continuum (Minneap Minn). 2023;29(4):1117-1129.
  6. 6.Holder S, Narula NS. Common sleep disorders in adults: diagnosis and management. Am Fam Physician. 2022;105(4):397-405.
  7. 7.Hrozanova M, Morrison I, Riha RL. Adult NREM parasomnias: an update. Clocks Sleep. 2018;1(1):87-104.
  8. 8.Vincent N, Dirkse D, Giannouli E, et al. Transdiagnostic cognitive behavioral therapy for nightmares and parasomnias. J Clin Sleep Med. 2023;19(3):499-509.
  9. 9.Mundt JM, Schuiling MD, Warlick C, et al. Behavioral and psychological treatments for NREM parasomnias: a systematic review. Sleep Med. 2023;111:36-53.
  10. 10.Szûcs A, Mutti C, Papp A, et al. REM sleep, REM parasomnias, REM sleep behaviour disorder. Ideggyogy Sz. 2022;75(5-06):171-182.
  11. 11.Iranzo A. Parasomnias and sleep-related movement disorders in older adults. Sleep Med Clin. 2022;17(2):295-305.
  12. 12.Howell M, Avidan AY, Foldvary-Schaefer N, et al. Management of REM sleep behavior disorder: an American Academy of Sleep Medicine clinical practice guideline. J Clin Sleep Med. 2023;19(4):759-768.
  13. 13.Ohayon MM, Pakpour AH. Prevalence, incidence, evolution and associated factors of sleep paralysis in a longitudinal study of the US general population. Sleep Med. 2022;98:62-67.
  14. 14.McCleery J, Sharpley AL. Pharmacotherapies for sleep disturbances in dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020;11(11):CD009178.
  15. 15.Zhang H, Iranzo A, Högl B, et al. Risk factors for phenoconversion in rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder. Ann Neurol. 2022;91(3):404-416.
  16. 16.Garriques VR, Dhruve DM, Nadorff MR. Nightmare disorder. Sleep Med Clin. 2024;19(1):111-119.
  17. 17.Stefani A, Högl B. Nightmare disorder and isolated sleep paralysis. Neurotherapeutics. 2021;18(1):100-106.
  18. 18.Proserpio P, Terzaghi M, Manni R, et al. Drugs used in parasomnia. Sleep Med Clin. 2022;17(3):367-378.
  19. 19.Juszczak GR. Desensitization of GABAergic receptors as a mechanism of zolpidem-induced somnambulism. Med Hypotheses. 2011;77(2):230-233.
  20. 20.Raggi A, Mogavero MP, DelRosso LM, et al. Clonazepam for the management of sleep disorders. Neurol Sci. 2023;44(1):115-128.
  21. 21.Watson NF, Benca RM, Krystal AD, et al. Alliance for Sleep clinical practice guideline on switching or deprescribing hypnotic medications for insomnia. J Clin Med. 2023;12(7):2493.
  22. 22.Steffens DC, Krishnan KRR, Helms MJ. Are SSRIs better than TCAs? Comparison of SSRIs and TCAs: a meta-analysis. Depress Anxiety. 1997;6(1):10-18.
  23. 23.Liu Y, Xu X, Dong M, et al. Treatment of insomnia with tricyclic antidepressants: a meta-analysis of polysomnographic randomized controlled trials. Sleep Med. 2017;34:126-133.
  24. 24.Anderson IM. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors versus tricyclic antidepressants: a meta-analysis of efficacy and tolerability. J Affect Disord. 2000;58(1):19-36.
  25. 25.Edlow BL, Sanz LRD, Polizzotto L, et al.; Curing Coma Campaign. Therapies to restore consciousness in patients with severe brain injuries: a gap analysis and future directions. Neurocrit Care. 2021;35(suppl 1):68-85.
  26. 26.Reinhard DL, Whyte J, Sandel ME. Improved arousal and initiation following tricyclic antidepressant use in severe brain injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1996;77(1):80-83.
  27. 27.Geldenhuys C, van den Heuvel LL, Steyn P, et al. Pharmacological management of nightmares associated with posttraumatic stress disorder. CNS Drugs. 2022;36(7):721-737.
  28. 28.Hu MT. REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD). Neurobiol Dis. 2020;143:104996.
  29. 29.Sobreira-Neto MA, Stelzer FG, Gitaí LLG, et al. REM sleep behavior disorder: update on diagnosis and management. Arq Neuropsiquiatr. 2023;81(12):1179-1194.
  30. 30.Antelmi E, Lippolis M, Biscarini F, et al. REM sleep behavior disorder: mimics and variants. Sleep Med Rev. 2021;60:101515.
  31. 31.Fernandes M, Maio S, Eusebi P, et al. Cerebrospinal-fluid biomarkers for predicting phenoconversion in patients with isolated rapid-eye movement sleep behavior disorder. Sleep (Basel). 2024;47(1):zsad198.
  32. 32.Malkani R. REM sleep behavior disorder and other REM parasomnias. Continuum (Minneap Minn). 2023;29(4):1092-1116.
  33. 33.Bhalerao V, Gotarkar S, Vishwakarma D, et al. Recent insights into sleep paralysis: mechanisms and management. Cureus. 2024;16(7):e65413.
  34. 34.Farooq M, Anjum F. Sleep paralysis. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562322/
  35. 35.Ableidinger S, Holzinger B. Sleep paralysis and lucid dreaming—between waking and dreaming: a review about two extraordinary states. J Clin Med. 2023;12(10):3437.
  36. 36.Leung AKC, Leung AAM, Wong AHC, et al. Sleep terrors: an updated review. Curr Pediatr Rev. 2020;16(3):176-182.
  37. 37.Idir Y, Oudiette D, Arnulf I. Sleepwalking, sleep terrors, sexsomnia and other disorders of arousal: the old and the new. J Sleep Res. 2022;31(4):e13596.
  38. 38.Irfan M, Schenck CH, Howell MJ. NonREM disorders of arousal and related parasomnias: an updated review. Neurotherapeutics. 2021;18(1):124-139.
  39. 39.Dumont S, Bloch V, Lillo-Lelouet A, et al. Parasomnias and sleep-related movement disorders induced by drugs in the adult population: a review about iatrogenic medication effects. J Sleep Res. 2025;34(2):e14306.
  40. 40.Lam SP, Fong SYY, Ho CKW, et al. Parasomnia among psychiatric outpatients: a clinical, epidemiologic, cross-sectional study. J Clin Psychiatry. 2008;69(9):1374-1382.
  41. 41.Natter J, Yokoyama T, Michel B. Relative frequency of drug-induced sleep disorders for 32 antidepressants in a large set of Internet user reviews. Sleep (Basel). 2021;44(12):zsab174.
  42. 42.Stallman HM, Kohler M, White J. Medication induced sleepwalking: a systematic review. Sleep Med Rev. 2018;37:105-113.
  43. 43.Cordani R, Lopez R, Barateau L, et al. Somnambulism. Sleep Med Clin. 2024;19(1):43-54.
  44. 44.Bruni O, DelRosso LM, Melegari MG, et al. The parasomnias. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 2024;47(1):135-146.
  45. 45.Zhang X, Molsberry SA, Pavlova M, et al. Association of sleepwalking and REM sleep behavior disorder with Parkinson disease in men. JAMA Netw Open. 2021;4(4):e215713.
  46. 46.Loddo G, Fragiacomo F, Mainieri G, et al. Disorders of arousal in 4 older men: evidence from clinical practice. J Clin Sleep Med. 2022;18(1):129-136.
  47. 47.Lopez R, Dauvilliers Y. Challenges in diagnosing NREM parasomnias: implications for future diagnostic classifications. Sleep Med Rev. 2024;73:101888.
  1. 1.Gathecha E, Rios R, Buenaver LF, et al. Pilot study aiming to support sleep quality and duration during hospitalizations. J Hosp Med. 2016;11(7):467-472.
  2. 2.Wesselius HM, van den Ende ES, Alsma J, et al.; “Onderzoeks Consortium Acute Geneeskunde” Acute Medicine Research Consortium. Quality and quantity of sleep and factors associated with sleep disturbance in hospitalized patients. JAMA Intern Med. 2018;178(9):1201-1208.
  3. 3.Stewart NH, Arora VM. Sleep in hospitalized older adults. Sleep Med Clin. 2018;13(1):127-135.
  4. 4.Walker MP. Why We Sleep: Unlocking the Power of Sleep and Dreams. WalkerMP. Why We Sleep: Unlocking the Power of Sleep and Dreams. Scribner; 2017.
  5. 5.Morse AM, Bender E. Sleep in hospitalized patients. Clocks Sleep. 2019;1(1):151-165.
  6. 6.Krumholz HM. Post-hospital syndrome—an acquired, transient condition of generalized risk. N Engl J Med. 2013;368(2):100-102.
  7. 7.Eschbach E, Wang J. Sleep and critical illness: a review. Front Med (Lausanne). 2023;10:1199685.
  8. 8.Jaiswal SJ, Kang DY, Wineinger NE, et al. Objectively measured sleep fragmentation is associated with incident delirium in older hospitalized patients: analysis of data collected from an randomized controlled trial. J Sleep Res. 2021;30(3):e13205.
  9. 9.Mansour W, Knauert M. Adding insult to injury: sleep deficiency in hospitalized patients. Clin Chest Med. 2022;43(2):287-303.
  10. 10.Krause AJ, Prather AA, Wager TD, et al. The pain of sleep loss: a brain characterization in humans. J Neurosci. 2019;39(12):2291-2300.
  11. 11.Staffe AT, Bech MW, Clemmensen SLK, et al. Total sleep deprivation increases pain sensitivity, impairs conditioned pain modulation and facilitates temporal summation of pain in healthy participants. PLoS One. 2019;14(12):e0225849.
  12. 12.Hu L, Wang EJ. Sleep as a therapeutic target for pain management. Curr Pain Headache Rep. 2023;27(6):131-141.
  13. 13.Hillman DR, Carlucci M, Charchaflieh JG, et al. Society of Anesthesia and Sleep Medicine position paper on patient sleep during hospitalization. Anesth Analg. 2023;136(4):814-824.
  14. 14.Akkaoui MA, Palagini L, Geoffroy PA. Sleep immune cross talk and insomnia. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2023;1411:263-273.
  15. 15.Beswick AD, Wylde V, Bertram W, et al. The effectiveness of non-pharmacological sleep interventions for improving inpatient sleep in hospital: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sleep Med. 2023;107:243-267.
  16. 16.van den Ende ES, Merten H, Van der Roest L, et al. Evaluation of nonpharmacologic interventions and sleep outcomes in hospitalized medical and surgical patients: a nonrandomized controlled trial. JAMA Netw Open. 2022;5(9):e2232623.
  17. 17.Tamrat R, Huynh-Le MP, Goyal M. Non-pharmacologic interventions to improve the sleep of hospitalized patients: a systematic review. J Gen Intern Med. 2014;29(5):788-795.
  18. 18.Stewart NH, Arora VM. Sleep in hospitalized older adults. Sleep Med Clin. 2022;17(2):223-232.
  19. 19.Huang D, Li Y, Ye J, et al. Different nursing interventions on sleep quality among critically ill patients: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Medicine (Baltimore). 2023;102(52):e36298.
  20. 20.White B, Snyder HS, Patel MVB. Evaluation of medications used for hospitalized patients with sleep disturbances: a frequency analysis and literature review. J Pharm Pract. 2023;36(1):126-138.
  21. 21.Salahub C, Wu PE, Burry LD, et al. Melatonin for insomnia in medical inpatients: a narrative review. J Clin Med. 2022;12(1):256.
  22. 22.Everitt H, Baldwin DS, Stuart B, et al. Antidepressants for insomnia in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018;5(5):CD010753.
  23. 23.Crone C, Fochtmann LJ, Ahmed I, et al. CroneCFochtmannLJAhmedIet al. Practice guideline for the prevention and treatment of delirium (practice guideline under copyediting). American Psychiatric Association; 2025.
  24. 24.Zee PC, Bertisch SM, Morin CM, et al. Long-term use of insomnia medications: an appraisal of the current clinical and scientific evidence. J Clin Med. 2023;12(4):1629.
  25. 25.Soong C, Burry L, Cho HJ, et al. An implementation guide to promote sleep and reduce sedative-hypnotic initiation for noncritically ill inpatients. JAMA Intern Med. 2019;179(7):965-972.
  26. 26.Liu Y, Xu X, Dong M, et al. Treatment of insomnia with tricyclic antidepressants: a meta-analysis of polysomnographic randomized controlled trials. Sleep Med. 2017;34:126-133.
  27. 27.Thompson W, Quay TAW, Rojas-Fernandez C, et al. Atypical antipsychotics for insomnia: a systematic review. Sleep Med. 2016;22:13-17.
  28. 28.Soong C, Ethier C, Lee Y, et al. Reducing sedative-hypnotics among hospitalized patients: a multi-centered study. J Gen Intern Med. 2022;37(10):2345-2350.
  29. 29.Van der Linden L, Hias J, Liesenborghs A, et al. The impact of a pharmacist intervention on post-discharge hypnotic drug discontinuation in geriatric inpatients: a before-after study. BMC Geriatr. 2023;23(1):407.
  30. 30.Tawfeeq S, Singh A, Dilip Mehta P, et al. Sleep disorders among physicians: a systematic review of prevalence, impact on burnout, and patient safety. Chest. 2023;164(4):A6314.
  31. 31.Kancherla BS, Upender R, Collen JF, et al. Sleep, fatigue and burnout among physicians: an American Academy of Sleep Medicine position statement. J Clin Sleep Med. 2020;16(5):803-805.
  32. 32.Olfson M, Wall M, Liu SM, et al. Insomnia and impaired quality of life in the United States. J Clin Psychiatry. 2018;79(5):17m12020.
  33. 33.Abdalla RN, Ansari SA, Hurley MC, et al. Correlation of call burden and sleep deprivation with physician burnout, driving crashes, and medical errors among US neurointerventionalists. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2022;43(9):1286-1291.
  34. 34.Quan SF, Landrigan CP, Barger LK, et al. Impact of sleep deficiency on surgical performance: a prospective assessment. J Clin Sleep Med. 2023;19(4):673-683.
  35. 35.Stewart NH, Arora VM. The impact of sleep and circadian disorders on physician burnout. Chest. 2019;156(5):1022-1030.
  36. 36.Choshen-Hillel S, Ishqer A, Mahameed F, et al. Acute and chronic sleep deprivation in residents: cognition and stress biomarkers. Med Educ. 2021;55(2):174-184.
  37. 37.Shaik L, Cheema MS, Subramanian S, et al. Sleep and safety among healthcare workers: the effect of obstructive sleep apnea and sleep deprivation on safety. Medicina (Kaunas). 2022;58(12):1723.
  38. 38.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Workplace Health Resource Center. Sleep: An Important Health and Safety Concern at Work. https://ihpm.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/CDC_Survey-1.pdf
  39. 39.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Workplace health promotion. https://www.cdc.gov/workplace-health-promotion/php/index.html
  40. 40.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. CDC Workplace Health Program. https://www.cdc.gov/workplace-health-promotion/php/about/index.html
  41. 41.Faulkner SM, Bee PE, Meyer N, et al. Light therapies to improve sleep in intrinsic circadian rhythm sleep disorders and neuro-psychiatric illness: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sleep Med Rev. 2019;46:108-123.
  42. 42.Landrigan CP, Rahman SA, Sullivan JP, et al.; ROSTERS Study Group. Effect on patient safety of a resident physician schedule without 24-hour shifts. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(26):2514-2523.
  43. 43.Desai SV, Feldman L, Brown L, et al. Effect of the 2011 vs 2003 duty hour regulation-compliant models on sleep duration, trainee education, and continuity of patient care among internal medicine house staff: a randomized trial. JAMA Intern Med. 2013;173(8):649-655.
  44. 44.Jena AB, Farid M, Blumenthal D, et al. Association of residency work hour reform with long term quality and costs of care of US physicians: observational study. BMJ. 2019;366:l4134.
  45. 45.Trockel MT, Menon NK, Rowe SG, et al. Assessment of physician sleep and wellness, burnout, and clinically significant medical errors. JAMA Netw Open. 2020;3(12):e2028111.
  46. 46.Huffmyer JL, Moncrief M, Tashjian JA, et al. Driving performance of residents after six consecutive overnight work shifts. Anesthesiology. 2016;124(6):1396-1403.

Current edition

Hepatitis Overview

Hepatitis Overview

Copyright © 2026 by the American Academy of Family Physicians.

This content is owned by the AAFP. A person viewing it online may make one printout of the material and may use that printout only for his or her personal, non-commercial reference. This material may not otherwise be downloaded, copied, printed, stored, transmitted or reproduced in any medium, whether now known or later invented, except as authorized in writing by the AAFP. See permissions for copyright questions and/or permission requests.