- 1.Rinella ME, Lazarus JV, Ratziu V, et al.; NAFLD Nomenclature Consensus Group. A multisociety Delphi consensus statement on new fatty liver disease nomenclature. Hepatology. 2023;78(6):1966-1986.
- 2.Llovet JM, Willoughby CE, Singal AG, et al. Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis-related hepatocellular carcinoma: pathogenesis and treatment. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2023;20(8):487-503.
- 3.Parthasarathy G, Revelo X, Malhi H. Pathogenesis of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis: an overview. Hepatol Commun. 2020;4(4):478-492.
- 4.Kanwal F, Neuschwander-Tetri BA, Loomba R, et al. Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease: update and impact of new nomenclature on the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases practice guidance on nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Hepatology. 2024;79(5):1212-1219.
- 5.Younossi ZM, Golabi P, Paik JM, et al. The global epidemiology of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH): a systematic review. Hepatology. 2023;77(4):1335-1347.
- 6.Díaz LA, Lazarus JV, Fuentes-López E, et al. Disparities in steatosis prevalence in the United States by race or ethnicity according to the 2023 criteria. Commun Med (Lond). 2024;4(1):219.
- 7.Xanthakos SA, Ibrahim SH, Adams K, et al. AASLD practice statement on the evaluation and management of metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease in children. Hepatology. 2025;82(5):1352-1394.
- 8.Le P, Tatar M, Dasarathy S, et al. Estimated burden of metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease in US adults, 2020 to 2050. JAMA Netw Open. 2025;8(1):e2454707.
- 9.European Association for the Study of the Liver (EASL); European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD); European Association for the Study of Obesity (EASO). EASL-EASD-EASO clinical practice guidelines on the management of metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD). J Hepatol. 2024;81(3):492-542.
- 10.Sanyal AJ, Newsome PN, Kliers I, et al.; ESSENCE Study Group. Phase 3 trial of semaglutide in metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis. N Engl J Med. 2025;392(21):2089-2099.
- 11.McPherson S, Hardy T, Henderson E, et al. Evidence of NAFLD progression from steatosis to fibrosing-steatohepatitis using paired biopsies: implications for prognosis and clinical management. J Hepatol. 2015;62(5):1148-1155.
- 12.Petta S, Sebastiani G, Viganò M, et al. Monitoring occurrence of liver-related events and survival by transient elastography in patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and compensated advanced chronic liver disease. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2021;19(4):806.e5-815.e5.
- 13.Chalasani N, Younossi Z, Lavine JE, et al. The diagnosis and management of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: practice guidance from the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases. Hepatology. 2018;67(1):328-357.
- 14.Girish V, John S. Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD). StatPearls. Updated August 9, 2025. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK541033/
- 15.Galán-Puchades MT. Use of liver imaging and biopsy in clinical practice. N Engl J Med. 2017;377(23):2295.
- 16.Tapper EB, Lok AS. Use of liver imaging and biopsy in clinical practice. N Engl J Med. 2017;377(8):756-768.
- 17.Shah AG, Lydecker A, Murray K, et al.; Nash Clinical Research Network. Comparison of noninvasive markers of fibrosis in patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2009;7(10):1104-1112.
- 18.Bedossa P, Poynard T. An algorithm for the grading of activity in chronic hepatitis C. The METAVIR Cooperative Study Group. Hepatology. 1996;24(2):289-293.
- 19.Vali Y, Lee J, Boursier J, et al.; LITMUS Systematic Review Team. Enhanced liver fibrosis test for the non-invasive diagnosis of fibrosis in patients with NAFLD: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Hepatol. 2020;73(2):252-262.
- 20.Dulai PS, Singh S, Patel J, et al. Increased risk of mortality by fibrosis stage in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: systematic review and meta-analysis. Hepatology. 2017;65(5):1557-1565.
- 21.European Association for the Study of the Liver. EASL clinical practice guidelines on non-invasive tests for evaluation of liver disease severity and prognosis - 2021 update. J Hepatol. 2021;75(3):659-689.
- 22.Castera L, Friedrich-Rust M, Loomba R. Noninvasive assessment of liver disease in patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Gastroenterology. 2019;156(5):1264.e4-1281.e4.
- 23.Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices. ACIP recommendations: hepatitis A vaccine. July 26, 2024. Accessed May 1, 2026. https://www.cdc.gov/acip-recs/hcp/vaccine-specific/hepatitis-a.html
- 24.Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices. ACIP recommendations: hepatitis B vaccine. July 26, 2024. Accessed May 1, 2026. https://www.cdc.gov/acip-recs/hcp/vaccine-specific/hepatitis-b.html
- 25.Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices. ACIP recommendations: pneumococcal vaccine. January 8, 2025. Accessed May 1, 2026. https://www.cdc.gov/acip-recs/hcp/vaccine-specific/pneumococcal.html
- 26.Vilar-Gomez E, Martinez-Perez Y, Calzadilla-Bertot L, et al. Weight loss through lifestyle modification significantly reduces features of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Gastroenterology. 2015;149(2):367.e5-378.e5.
- 27.Malespin MH, Barritt AS IV, Watkins SE, et al. Weight loss and weight regain in usual clinical practice: results from the target-NASH observational cohort. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2022;20(10):2393.e4-2395.e4.
- 28.Hassani Zadeh S, Mansoori A, Hosseinzadeh M. Relationship between dietary patterns and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2021;36(6):1470-1478.
- 29.Abdelmalek MF, Lazo M, Horska A, et al.; Fatty Liver Subgroup of Look AHEAD Research Group. Higher dietary fructose is associated with impaired hepatic adenosine triphosphate homeostasis in obese individuals with type 2 diabetes. Hepatology. 2012;56(3):952-960.
- 30.Hayat U, Siddiqui AA, Okut H, et al. The effect of coffee consumption on the non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and liver fibrosis: a meta-analysis of 11 epidemiological studies. Ann Hepatol. 2021;20:100254.
- 31.Sabag A, Barr L, Armour M, et al. The effect of high-intensity interval training vs moderate-intensity continuous training on liver fat: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2022;107(3):862-881.
- 32.Blomdahl J, Nasr P, Ekstedt M, et al. Moderate alcohol consumption is associated with advanced fibrosis in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and shows a synergistic effect with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Metabolism. 2021;115:154439.
- 33.Jarvis H, O’Keefe H, Craig D, et al. Does moderate alcohol consumption accelerate the progression of liver disease in NAFLD? A systematic review and narrative synthesis. BMJ Open. 2022;12(1):e049767.
- 34.Younossi ZM, Corey KE, Lim JK. AGA clinical practice update on lifestyle modification using diet and exercise to achieve weight loss in the management of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: expert review. Gastroenterology. 2021;160(3):912-918.
- 35.Rinella ME, Neuschwander-Tetri BA, Siddiqui MS, et al. AASLD practice guidance on the clinical assessment and management of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Hepatology. 2023;77(5):1797-1835.
- 36.Ratziu V, Scanlan TS, Bruinstroop E. Thyroid hormone receptor-β analogues for the treatment of metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis (MASH). J Hepatol. 2025;82(2):375-387.
- 37.Harrison SA, Bedossa P, Guy CD, et al.; MAESTRO-NASH Investigators. A phase 3, randomized, controlled trial of resmetirom in NASH with liver fibrosis. N Engl J Med. 2024;390(6):497-509.
- 38.Mantovani A, Morandin R, Fiorio V, et al. Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists improve MASH and liver fibrosis: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Liver Int. 2025;45(9):e70256.
- 39.Musso G, Cassader M, Paschetta E, et al. Thiazolidinediones and advanced liver fibrosis in nonalcoholic steatohepatitis: a meta-analysis. JAMA Intern Med. 2017;177(5):633-640.
- 40.Cusi K, Orsak B, Bril F, et al. Long-term pioglitazone treatment for patients with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis and prediabetes or type 2 diabetes mellitus: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 2016;165(5):305-315.
- 41.Staels B, Butruille L, Francque S. Treating NASH by targeting peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors. J Hepatol. 2023;79(5):1302-1316.
- 42.Hoofnagle JH, Van Natta ML, Kleiner DE, et al.; Non-alcoholic Steatohepatitis Clinical Research Network (NASH CRN). Vitamin E and changes in serum alanine aminotransferase levels in patients with non-alcoholic steatohepatitis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2013;38(2):134-143.
- 43.Mechanick JI, Apovian C, Brethauer S, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for the perioperative nutrition, metabolic, and nonsurgical support of patients undergoing bariatric procedures - 2019 update: cosponsored by American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists/American College of Endocrinology, The Obesity Society, American Society for Metabolic and Bariatric Surgery, Obesity Medicine Association, and American Society of Anesthesiologists. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2020;28(4):O1-O58.
- 44.Lee Y, Doumouras AG, Yu J, et al. Complete resolution of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease after bariatric surgery: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2019;17(6):1040.e11-1060.e11.
- 45.Cusi K, Isaacs S, Barb D, et al. American Association of Clinical Endocrinology clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis and management of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in primary care and endocrinology clinical settings: co-sponsored by the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases (AASLD). Endocr Pract. 2022;28(5):528-562.
- 46.Shang Y, Akbari C, Dodd M, et al. Association between longitudinal biomarkers and major adverse liver outcomes in patients with non-cirrhotic metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease. Hepatology. 2025;81(5):1501-1511.
- 47.Rinella ME, Dufour JF, Anstee QM, et al. Non-invasive evaluation of response to obeticholic acid in patients with NASH: results from the REGENERATE study. J Hepatol. 2022;76(3):536-548.
- 48.Luthra R, Sheth A. Understanding MASH: an examination of progression and clinical outcomes by disease severity in the TARGET-NASH database. Adv Ther. 2025;42(2):1165-1195.
- 49.Sanyal AJ, Van Natta ML, Clark J, et al.; NASH Clinical Research Network (CRN). Prospective study of outcomes in adults with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. N Engl J Med. 2021;385(17):1559-1569.
- 50.Canbay A, Kachru N, Haas JS, et al. Patterns and predictors of mortality and disease progression among patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2020;52(7):1185-1194.
- 51.Loomba R, Wong R, Fraysse J, et al. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease progression rates to cirrhosis and progression of cirrhosis to decompensation and mortality: a real world analysis of Medicare data. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2020;51(11):1149-1159.
- 52.Adams LA, Anstee QM, Tilg H, et al. Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and its relationship with cardiovascular disease and other extrahepatic diseases. Gut. 2017;66(6):1138-1153.
- 53.Angulo P, Kleiner DE, Dam-Larsen S, et al. Liver fibrosis, but no other histologic features, is associated with long-term outcomes of patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Gastroenterology. 2015;149(2):389.e10-397.e10.
- 54.Duell PB, Welty FK, Miller M, et al.; American Heart Association Council on Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis and Vascular Biology; Council on Hypertension; Council on the Kidney in Cardiovascular Disease; Council on Lifestyle and Cardiometabolic Health; and Council on Peripheral Vascular Disease. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and cardiovascular risk: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2022;42(6):e168-e185.
- 55.Zhou XD, Targher G, Byrne CD, et al. An international multidisciplinary consensus statement on MAFLD and the risk of CVD. Hepatol Int. 2023;17(4):773-791.
- 56.Kwok R, Choi KC, Wong GL, et al. Screening diabetic patients for non-alcoholic fatty liver disease with controlled attenuation parameter and liver stiffness measurements: a prospective cohort study. Gut. 2016;65(8):1359-1368.
- 57.Bazick J, Donithan M, Neuschwander-Tetri BA, et al. Clinical model for NASH and advanced fibrosis in adult patients with diabetes and NAFLD: guidelines for referral in NAFLD. Diabetes Care. 2015;38(7):1347-1355.
- 58.El-Serag HB, Hampel H, Javadi F. The association between diabetes and hepatocellular carcinoma: a systematic review of epidemiologic evidence. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2006;4(3):369-380.
- 59.Bays H, Cohen DE, Chalasani N, et al.; The National Lipid Association’s Statin Safety Task Force. An assessment by the Statin Liver Safety Task Force: 2014 update. J Clin Lipidol. 2014;8(3):S47-S57.
- 60.Loomba R, Lim JK, Patton H, et al. AGA clinical practice update on screening and surveillance for hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: expert review. Gastroenterology. 2020;158(6):1822-1830.
- 61.Singal AG, Llovet JM, Yarchoan M, et al. AASLD practice guidance on prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatology. 2023;78(6):1922-1965.
- 62.European Association for the Study of the Liver. EASL policy statement: risk-based surveillance for hepatocellular carcinoma among patients with cirrhosis. April 18, 2023. Accessed March 19, 2026. https://easl.eu/publication/easl-policy-statement-risk-based/
- 63.Curran C, Priest M, Datta S, et al. Hepatocellular carcinoma risk scores predict patients under surveillance at low risk of benefit and high risk of harm. Dig Dis Sci. 2023;68(3):770-777.
- 1.World Health Organization. Global hepatitis report 2024: action for access in low-and middle-income countries. April 9, 2024. Accessed August 1, 2025. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240091672
- 2.Foster MA, Hofmeister MG, Kupronis BA, et al. Increase in hepatitis A virus infections - United States, 2013-2018. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2019;68(18):413-415.
- 3.Koff RS. Hepatitis A. Lancet. 1998;351(9116):1643-1649.
- 4.Alter MJ, Hadler SC, Margolis HS, et al. The changing epidemiology of hepatitis B in the United States. Need for alternative vaccination strategies. JAMA. 1990;263(9):1218-1222.
- 5.Veronese P, Dodi I, Esposito S, et al. Prevention of vertical transmission of hepatitis B virus infection. World J Gastroenterol. 2021;27(26):4182-4193.
- 6.Pietschmann T, Brown RJP. Hepatitis C virus. Trends Microbiol. 2019;27(4):379-380.
- 7.Kushel M. Hepatitis A outbreak in California - addressing the root cause. N Engl J Med. 2018;378(3):211-213.
- 8.Abutaleb A, Kottilil S. Hepatitis A: epidemiology, natural history, unusual clinical manifestations, and prevention. Gastroenterol Clin North Am. 2020;49(2):191-199.
- 9.Nelson NP, Weng MK, Hofmeister MG, et al. Prevention of hepatitis A virus infection in the United States: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices, 2020. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2020;69(5):1-38.
- 10.Lu PJ, Hung MC, Srivastav A, et al. Surveillance of vaccination coverage among adult populations – United States, 2018. MMWR Surveill Summ. 2021;70(3):1-26.
- 11.Liang TJ. Hepatitis B: the virus and disease. Hepatology. 2009;49(5):S13-S21.
- 12.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2022 viral hepatitis surveillance report. September 30, 2024. Accessed August 1, 2025. https://www.cdc.gov/hepatitis-surveillance-2022/about/index.html
- 13.Trépo C, Chan HLY, Lok A. Hepatitis B virus infection. Lancet. 2014;384(9959):2053-2063.
- 14.Calderon-Martinez E, Landazuri-Navas S, Vilchez E, et al. Prognostic scores and survival rates by etiology of hepatocellular carcinoma: a review. J Clin Med Res. 2023;15(4):200-207.
- 15.Rehermann B. Toward a better understanding of chronic hepatitis B virus infection. J Clin Invest. 2024;134(19):e185568.
- 16.Ghany MG, Pan CQ, Lok AS, et al. AASLD IDSA practice guideline on treatment of chronic hepatitis B. Hepatology. 2026;83(4):974-997.
- 17.World Health Organization. Guidelines for the prevention, diagnosis, care and treatment for people with chronic hepatitis B infection. March 29, 2024. Accessed August 1, 2025. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240090903
- 18.Singal AG, Llovet JM, Yarchoan M, et al. AASLD practice guidance on prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatology. 2023;78(6):1922-1965.
- 19.Micallef JM, Kaldor JM, Dore GJ. Spontaneous viral clearance following acute hepatitis C infection: a systematic review of longitudinal studies. J Viral Hepat. 2006;13(1):34-41.
- 20.Hall EW, Bradley H, Barker LK, et al. Estimating hepatitis C prevalence in the United States, 2017-2020. Hepatology. 2025;81(2):625-636.
- 21.Fasano M, Ieva F, Ciarallo M, et al. Acute hepatitis C: current status and future perspectives. Viruses. 2024;16(11):1739.
- 22.Schillie S, Wester C, Osborne M, et al. CDC recommendations for hepatitis C screening among adults – United States, 2020. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2020;69(2):1-17.
- 23.Dore GJ, Altice F, Litwin AH, et al.; C-EDGE CO-STAR Study Group. Elbasvir-grazoprevir to treat hepatitis C virus infection in persons receiving opioid agonist therapy: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 2016;165(9):625-634.
- 24.Mira JA, Rivero-Juárez A, López-Cortés LF, et al.; Grupo Andaluz para el Estudio de las Hepatitis Víricas de la Sociedad Andaluza de Enfermedades Infecciosas. Benefits from sustained virologic response to pegylated interferon plus ribavirin in HIV/hepatitis C virus-coinfected patients with compensated cirrhosis. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;56(11):1646-1653.
- 25.Zoratti MJ, Siddiqua A, Morassut RE, et al. Pangenotypic direct acting antivirals for the treatment of chronic hepatitis C virus infection: a systematic literature review and meta-analysis. EClinicalMedicine. 2020;18:100237.
- 26.Sise ME, Bloom AK, Wisocky J, et al. Treatment of hepatitis C virus-associated mixed cryoglobulinemia with direct-acting antiviral agents. Hepatology. 2016;63(2):408-417.
- 27.Takahashi K, Nishida N, Kawabata H, et al. Regression of Hodgkin lymphoma in response to antiviral therapy for hepatitis C virus infection. Intern Med. 2012;51(19):2745-2747.
- 28.Carrat F, Fontaine H, Dorival C, et al.; French ANRS CO22 Hepather cohort. Clinical outcomes in patients with chronic hepatitis C after direct-acting antiviral treatment: a prospective cohort study. Lancet. 2019;393(10179):1453-1464.
- 29.Marrero JA, Kulik LM, Sirlin CB, et al. Diagnosis, staging, and management of hepatocellular carcinoma: 2018 practice guidance by the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases. Hepatology. 2018;68(2):723-750.
- 30.Thomson EC, Nastouli E, Main J, et al. Delayed anti-HCV antibody response in HIV-positive men acutely infected with HCV. AIDS. 2009;23(1):89-93.
- 31.Conners EE, Panagiotakopoulos L, Hofmeister MG, et al. Screening and testing for hepatitis B virus infection: CDC recommendations – United States, 2023. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2023;72(1):1-25.
- 32.Krist AH, Davidson KW, Mangione CM, et al. Screening for hepatitis B virus infection in adolescents and adults: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. JAMA. 2020;324(23):2415-2422.
- 33.Schillie S, Vellozzi C, Reingold A, et al. Prevention of hepatitis B virus infection in the United States: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2018;67(1):1-31.
- 34.Spradling PR, Xing J, Harris AM, et al. Estimated prevalence and number of persons with isolated antibody to Hepatitis B core antigen and associated occult hepatitis B, United States, 2001-2018. J Infect Dis. 2022;225(3):465-469.
- 35.Tang LSY, Covert E, Wilson E, et al. Chronic hepatitis B infection: a review. JAMA. 2018;319(17):1802-1813.
- 36.Koretz RL. USPSTF recommends screening adults 18 to 79 years for hepatitis C virus infection (moderate certainty). Ann Intern Med. 2020;173(2):JC1.
- 37.Vanhommerig JW, Thomas XV, van der Meer JT, et al.; MOSAIC (MSM Observational Study for Acute Infection with hepatitis C) Study Group. Hepatitis C virus (HCV) antibody dynamics following acute HCV infection and reinfection among HIV-infected men who have sex with men. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;59(12):1678-1685.
- 38.Hajarizadeh B, Grebely J, Applegate T, et al.; ATAHC study group. Dynamics of HCV RNA levels during acute hepatitis C virus infection. J Med Virol. 2014;86(10):1722-1729.
- 39.Trickey A, Fajardo E, Alemu D, et al. Impact of hepatitis C virus point-of-care RNA viral load testing compared with laboratory-based testing on uptake of RNA testing and treatment, and turnaround times: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2023;8(3):253-270.
- 40.American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases. The national hepatitis C elimination program-AASLD’s coalition and call to action. Hepatology. 2023;78(2):371-374.
- 41.Panagiotakopoulos L, Sandul AL, Conners EE, et al. CDC recommendations for hepatitis C testing among perinatally exposed infants and children – United States, 2023. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2023;72(4):1-21.
- 42.Yadav SR, Goldman DA, Murray KF. Hepatitis C: current state of treatment in children. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2021;68(6):1321-1331.
- 43.Van Damme P, Pintó RM, Feng Z, et al. Hepatitis A virus infection. Nat Rev Dis Primers. 2023;9(1):51.
- 44.Terrault NA, Lok ASF, McMahon BJ, et al. Update on prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of chronic hepatitis B: AASLD 2018 hepatitis B guidance. Hepatology. 2018;67(4):1560-1599.
- 45.American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases; Infectious Diseases Society of America. Recommendations for testing, managing, and treating hepatitis C. Updated March 2025. Accessed September 15, 2025. http://www.hcvguidelines.org
- 46.Intraobserver and interobserver variations in liver biopsy interpretation in patients with chronic hepatitis C. The French METAVIR Cooperative Study Group. Hepatology. 1994;20(1):15-20.
- 47.Branchi F, Conti CB, Baccarin A, et al. Non-invasive assessment of liver fibrosis in chronic hepatitis B. World J Gastroenterol. 2014;20(40):14568-14580.
- 48.Marcellin P, Ziol M, Bedossa P, et al. Non-invasive assessment of liver fibrosis by stiffness measurement in patients with chronic hepatitis B. Liver Int. 2009;29(2):242-247.
- 49.de Lédinghen V, Vergniol J, Barthe C, et al. Non-invasive tests for fibrosis and liver stiffness predict 5-year survival of patients chronically infected with hepatitis B virus. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2013;37(10):979-988.
- 50.Bera C, Hamdan-Perez N, Patel K. Non-invasive assessment of liver fibrosis in hepatitis B patients. J Clin Med. 2024;13(4):1046.
- 51.Feld JJ, Lok AS, Zoulim F. New perspectives on development of curative strategies for chronic Hepatitis B. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2023;21(8):2040-2050.
- 52.Dieterich D, Graham C, Wang S, et al. It is time for a simplified approach to hepatitis B elimination. Gastro Hep Adv. 2022;2(2):209-218.
- 53.Hui VW, Chan SL, Wong VW, et al. Increasing antiviral treatment uptake improves survival in patients with HBV-related HCC. JHEP Rep. 2020;2(6):100152.
- 54.Bourlière M, Gordon SC, Flamm SL, et al.; POLARIS-1 and POLARIS-4 Investigators. Sofosbuvir, velpatasvir, and voxilaprevir for previously treated HCV Infection. N Engl J Med. 2017;376(22):2134-2146.
- 55.Poordad F, Pol S, Asatryan A, et al. Glecaprevir/pibrentasvir in patients with hepatitis C virus genotype 1 or 4 and past direct-acting antiviral treatment failure. Hepatology. 2018;67(4):1253-1260.
- 1.Jophlin LL, Singal AK, Bataller R, et al. ACG clinical guideline: alcohol-associated liver disease. Am J Gastroenterol. 2024;119(1):30-54.
- 2.Lee BP, Vittinghoff E, Dodge JL, et al. National trends and long-term outcomes of liver transplant for alcohol-associated liver disease in the United States. JAMA Intern Med. 2019;179(3):340-348.
- 3.Rock CL, Thomson C, Gansler T, et al. American Cancer Society guideline for diet and physical activity for cancer prevention. CA Cancer J Clin. 2020;70(4):245-271.
- 4.Anderson BO, Berdzuli N, Ilbawi A, et al. Health and cancer risks associated with low levels of alcohol consumption. Lancet Public Health. 2023;8(1):e6-e7.
- 5.Curry SJ, Krist AH, Owens DK, et al. Screening and behavioral counseling interventions to reduce unhealthy alcohol use in adolescents and adults. JAMA. 2018;320(18):1899-1909.
- 6.Crabb DW, Im GY, Szabo G, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of alcohol-associated liver diseases. Hepatology. 2020;71(1):306-333.
- 7.Deutsch-Link S, Jiang Y, Peery AF, et al. Alcohol-associated liver disease mortality increased from 2017 to 2020 and accelerated during the COVID-19 pandemic. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2022;20(9):2142.e2-2144.e2.
- 8.Tapper EB, Parikh ND. Mortality due to cirrhosis and liver cancer in the United States, 1999-2016: observational study. BMJ. 2018;362:k2817.
- 9.Anouti A, Mellinger JL. The changing epidemiology of alcohol-associated liver disease. Semin Liver Dis. 2023;43(1):50-59.
- 10.Pan CW, Abboud Y, Chitnis A, et al. Alcohol-associated liver disease mortality. JAMA Netw Open. 2025;8(6):e2514857.
- 11.Atkinson AM, Meadows BR, Emslie C, et al. ‘Pretty in pink’ and ‘girl power’: an analysis of the targeting and representation of women in alcohol brand marketing on Facebook and Instagram. Int J Drug Policy. 2022;101:103547.
- 12.Keyes KM, Jager J, Mal-Sarkar T, et al. Is there a recent epidemic of women’s drinking?. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2019;43(7):1344-1359.
- 13.Mathur AK, Schaubel DE, Gong Q, et al. Sex-based disparities in liver transplant rates in the United States. Am J Transplant. 2011;11(7):1435-1443.
- 14.Leggio L, Farokhnia M, Kenny PJ, et al. Crosstalk between alcohol use disorder and obesity. Mol Psychiatry. 2025;30(12):5938-5952.
- 15.Mellinger JL, Shedden K, Winder GS, et al. Bariatric surgery and the risk of alcohol-related cirrhosis and alcohol misuse. Liver Int. 2021;41(5):1012-1019.
- 16.Fan L, Zhu X, Shingina A, et al. Racial disparities in associations of alcohol consumption with liver disease mortality in a predominantly low-income population. Am J Gastroenterol. 2022;117(9):1523-1529.
- 17.Nephew LD, Aitcheson G, Iyengar M. The impact of racial disparities on liver disease access and outcomes. Curr Treat Options Gastroenterol. 2022;20:279-294.
- 18.Rinella NS, Charlton W, Reddy G, et al. Current burden of and geographic disparities in liver mortality and access to liver transplant. JAMA Netw Open. 2024;7(10):e2439846.
- 19.Lim N, Kwong AJ, Jafri SM, et al. Heterogeneity in center practices in liver transplantation for alcohol-associated liver disease in the United States. Am J Gastroenterol. 2022;117(9):1530-1535.
- 20.Julien J, Ayer T, Tapper EB, et al. The rising costs of alcohol-associated liver disease in the United States. Am J Gastroenterol. 2024;119(2):270-277.
- 21.National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. Understanding binge drinking. February 2025. Accessed September 1, 2025. https://www.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/brochures-and-fact-sheets/binge-drinking
- 22.MacKillop J, Agabio R, Feldstein Ewing SW, et al. Hazardous drinking and alcohol use disorders. Nat Rev Dis Primers. 2022;8(1):80.
- 23.Hingson RW, Zha W, White AM. Drinking beyond the binge threshold: predictors, consequences, and changes in the U.S. Am J Prev Med. 2017;52(6):717-727.
- 24.Rinella ME, Lazarus JV, Ratziu V, et al.; NAFLD nomenclature consensus group. A multisociety Delphi consensus statement on new fatty liver disease nomenclature. Hepatology. 2023;78(6):1966-1986.
- 25.National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. Rethinking Drinking. Alcohol drink size calculator. Accessed September 1, 2025 https://rethinkingdrinking.niaaa.nih.gov/tools/calculators/alcohol-drink-size-calculator
- 26.Volpicelli JR, Menzies P. Rethinking unhealthy alcohol use in the United States. Subst Abuse. 2022;16:11782218221111832.
- 27.Åberg F, Helenius-Hietala J, Puukka P, et al. Interaction between alcohol consumption and metabolic syndrome in predicting severe liver disease in the general population. Hepatology. 2018;67(6):2141-2149.
- 28.Bertholet N, Daeppen JB, Wietlisbach V, et al. Reduction of alcohol consumption by brief alcohol intervention in primary care. Arch Intern Med. 2005;165(9):986-995.
- 29.Rinella ME, Neuschwander-Tetri BA, Siddiqui MS, et al. AASLD practice guidance on the clinical assessment and management of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Hepatology. 2023;77(5):1797-1835.
- 30.Sterling RK, Patel K, Duarte-Rojo A, et al. AASLD practice guideline on blood-based noninvasive liver disease assessment of hepatic fibrosis and steatosis. Hepatology. 2025;81(1):321-357.
- 31.Sterling RK, Duarte-Rojo A, Patel K, et al. AASLD practice guideline on imaging-based noninvasive liver disease assessment of hepatic fibrosis and steatosis. Hepatology. 2025;81(2):672-724.
- 32.Naveau S, Gaudé G, Asnacios A, et al. Diagnostic and prognostic values of noninvasive biomarkers of fibrosis in patients with alcoholic liver disease. Hepatology. 2009;49(1):97-105.
- 33.Sterling RK, Lissen E, Clumeck N, et al.; APRICOT Clinical Investigators. Development of a simple noninvasive index to predict significant fibrosis in patients with HIV/HCV coinfection. Hepatology. 2006;43(6):1317-1325.
- 34.Day J, Patel P, Parkes J, et al. Derivation and performance of standardized enhanced liver fibrosis (ELF) test thresholds for the detection and prognosis of liver fibrosis. J Appl Lab Med. 2019;3(5):815-826.
- 35.Ouzan D, Penaranda G, Jlaiel M, et al. Using the FIB-4, automatically calculated, followed by the ELF test in second line to screen primary care patients for liver disease. Sci Rep. 2024;14(1):12198.
- 36.Kjaergaard M, Lindvig KP, Thorhauge KH, et al. Using the ELF test, FIB-4 and NAFLD fibrosis score to screen the population for liver disease. J Hepatol. 2023;79(2):277-286.
- 37.Rosenberg WMC, Voelker M, Thiel R, et al.; European Liver Fibrosis Group. Serum markers detect the presence of liver fibrosis: a cohort study. Gastroenterology. 2004;127(6):1704-1713.
- 38.Vali Y, Lee J, Boursier J, et al. Enhanced liver fibrosis test for the non-invasive diagnosis of fibrosis in patients with NAFLD. J Hepatol. 2020;73(2):252-262.
- 39.Kwo PY, Cohen SM, Lim JK. ACG clinical guideline: evaluation of abnormal liver chemistries. Am J Gastroenterol. 2017;112(1):18-35.
- 40.Botros M, Sikaris KA. The de ritis ratio: the test of time. Clin Biochem Rev. 2013;34(3):117-130.
- 41.Salavrakos M, Piessevaux H, Komuta M, et al. Fibroscan reliably rules out advanced liver fibrosis and significant portal hypertension in alcoholic patients. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2019;53(10):772-778.
- 42.Yen YH, Kuo FY, Chen CH, et al. Ultrasound is highly specific in diagnosing compensated cirrhosis in chronic hepatitis C patients in real world clinical practice. Medicine (Baltimore). 2019;98(27):e16270.
- 43.Herrick-Reynolds KM, Punchhi G, Greenberg RS, et al. Evaluation of early vs standard liver transplant for alcohol-associated liver disease. JAMA Surg. 2021;156(11):1026-1034.
- 44.Jalan R, Saliba F, Pavesi M, et al. Development and validation of a prognostic score to predict mortality in patients with acute-onchronic liver failure. J Hepatol. 2014;61(5):1038-1047.
- 45.European Foundation for the Study of Chronic Liver Failure (EF CLIF). CLIF-OF | ACLF | AD. Accessed September 1, 2025. https://efclif.com/research-infrastructure/score-calculators/clif-c-of-aclf-ad/#
- 46.Gustot T, Jalan R. Acute-on-chronic liver failure in patients with alcohol-related liver disease. J Hepatol. 2019;70(2):319-327.
- 47.Forrest EH, Atkinson SR, Richardson P, et al. Prevalent acute-on-chronic liver failure and response to corticosteroids in alcoholic hepatitis. J Hepatol. 2018;69(5):1200-1201.
- 48.Lucey MR, Connor JT, Boyer TD, et al. Alcohol consumption by cirrhotic subjects. Am J Gastroenterol. 2008;103(7):1698-1706.
- 49.Hofer BS, Simbrunner B, Hartl L, et al. Alcohol abstinence improves prognosis across all stages of portal hypertension in alcohol-related cirrhosis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2023;21(9):2308.e7-2317.e7.
- 50.Collins SE, Duncan MH, Saxon AJ, et al. Combining behavioral harm-reduction treatment and extended-release naltrexone for people experiencing homelessness and alcohol use disorder in the USA: a randomised clinical trial. Lancet Psychiatry. 2021;8(4):287-300.
- 51.Collins SE, Clifasefi SL, Nelson LA, et al. Randomized controlled trial of harm reduction treatment for alcohol (HaRT-A) for people experiencing homelessness and alcohol use disorder. Int J Drug Policy. 2019;67:24-33.
- 52.Anton RF, O’Malley SS, Ciraulo DA, et al. Combined pharmacotherapies and behavioral interventions for alcohol dependence: the COMBINE study. JAMA. 2006;295(17):2003-2017.
- 53.American Society of Addiction Medicine. ASAM Criteria. Accessed September 1, 2025. https://www.asam.org/asam-criteria/about-the-asam-criteria
- 54.Rosenson J, Clements C, Simon B, et al. Phenobarbital for acute alcohol withdrawal. J Emerg Med. 2013;44(3):592.e2-598.e2.
- 55.Jonas DE, Amick HR, Feltner C, et al. Pharmacotherapy for adults with alcohol use disorders in outpatient settings: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA. 2014;311(18):1889-1900.
- 56.Morley KC, Kranzler HR, Luquin N, et al. Topiramate versus naltrexone for alcohol use disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2024;181(5):403-411.
- 57.Hendershot CS, Bremmer MP, Paladino MB, et al. Once-weekly semaglutide in adults with alcohol use disorder: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry. 2025;82(4):395-405.
- 58.Krist AH, Bradley KA. Addressing Alcohol Use. N Engl J Med. 2025;392(17):1721-1731.
- 59.Arab JP, Izzy M, Leggio L, et al. Management of alcohol use disorder in patients with cirrhosis in the setting of liver transplantation. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2022;19(1):45-59.
- 60.Lexicomp. Accessed September 1, 2025 https://online.lexi.com
- 61.Ayyala D, Bottyan T, Tien C, et al. Naltrexone for alcohol use disorder: hepatic safety in patients with and without liver disease. Hepatol Commun. 2022;6(12):3433-3442.
- 62.Cornelius JR, Salloum IM, Ehler JG, et al. Fluoxetine in depressed alcoholics. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1997;54(8):700-705.
- 63.Agabio R, Trogu E, Pani PP. Antidepressants for the treatment of people with co-occurring depression and alcohol dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018(4):CD008581.
- 64.Bahji A, Crockford D, El-Guebaly N. Management of post-acute alcohol withdrawal. J Stud Alcohol Drugs. 2022;83(4):470-479.
- 65.Volkow ND, Koob GF, McLellan AT. Neurobiologic advances from the brain disease model of addiction. N Engl J Med. 2016;374(4):363-371.
- 66.Marlatt GA, Gordon JR. Relapse Prevention: Maintenance Strategies in the Treatment of Addictive Behaviors. MarlattGAGordonJR, eds. Relapse Prevention: Maintenance Strategies in the Treatment of Addictive Behaviors. The Guilford Press; 1985.
- 67.Forrest E, Mellor J, Stanton L, et al. Steroids or pentoxifylline for alcoholic hepatitis (STOPAH). Trials. 2013;14:262.
- 68.Louvet A, Thursz MR, Kim DJ, et al. Corticosteroids reduce risk of death within 28 days for patients with severe alcoholic hepatitis, compared with pentoxifylline or placebo. Gastroenterology. 2018;155(2):458-468.e8.
- 69.Pavlov CS, Varganova DL, Casazza G, et al. Glucocorticosteroids for people with alcoholic hepatitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019(4):CD001511.
- 70.Hmoud BS, Patel K, Bataller R, et al. Corticosteroids and occurrence of and mortality from infections in severe alcoholic hepatitis: a meta-analysis of randomized trials. Liver Int. 2016;36(5):721-728.
- 71.Shi MA, Pungwe P, Comer LLM, et al. Corticosteroids in severe alcohol-associated hepatitis. Hepatology. 2025;82(5):1241-1255.
- 72.Parker R, Cabezas J, Altamirano J, et al. Trajectory of serum bilirubin predicts spontaneous recovery in a real-world cohort of patients with alcoholic hepatitis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2022;20(2):e289-e297.
- 73.Garcia-Saenz-de-Sicilia M, Duvoor C, Altamirano J, et al. A day-4 Lille model predicts response to corticosteroids and mortality in severe alcoholic hepatitis. Am J Gastroenterol. 2017;112(2):306-315.
- 74.Fialla AD, Israelsen M, Hamberg O, et al. Nutritional therapy in cirrhosis or alcoholic hepatitis. Liver Int. 2015;35(9):2072-2078.
- 75.Nguyen-Khac E, Thevenot T, Piquet MA, et al.; AAH-NAC Study Group. Glucocorticoids plus N-acetylcysteine in severe alcoholic hepatitis. N Engl J Med. 2011;365(19):1781-1789.
- 76.Asrani SK, Trotter J, Lake J, et al. Meeting report: the Dallas Consensus Conference on Liver Transplantation for Alcohol Associated Hepatitis. Liver Transpl. 2020;26(1):127-140.
- 77.Mathurin P, Moreno C, Samuel D, et al. Early liver transplantation for severe alcoholic hepatitis. N Engl J Med. 2011;365(19):1790-1800.
- 78.DiMartini A, Day N, Dew MA, et al. Alcohol consumption patterns and predictors of use following liver transplantation for alcoholic liver disease. Liver Transpl. 2006;12(5):813-820.
- 79.Cotter TG, Sandıkçı B, Paul S, et al. Liver transplantation for alcoholic hepatitis in the United States. Am J Transplant. 2021;21(3):1039-1055.
- 80.Lee BP, Im GY, Rice JP, et al. Patterns of alcohol use after early liver transplantation for alcoholic hepatitis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2022;20(2):409.e5-418.e5.
- 81.Mellinger JL, Winder GS, Fernandez AC, et al. Feasibility and early experience of a novel multidisciplinary alcohol-associated liver disease clinic. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2021;130:108396.
- 82.Haque LY, Leggio L. Integrated and collaborative care across the spectrum of alcohol-associated liver disease and alcohol use disorder. Hepatology. 2024;80(6):1408-1423.
- 83.Poonja Z, Brisebois A, van Zanten SV, et al. Patients with cirrhosis and denied liver transplants rarely receive adequate palliative care or appropriate management. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2014;12(4):692-698.
- 84.Kaplan DE, Ripoll C, Thiele M, et al. AASLD practice guidance on risk stratification and management of portal hypertension and varices in cirrhosis. Hepatology. 2024;79(5):1180-1211.
- 85.Tiwari V, Shandily S, Albert J, et al. Insights into medication-induced liver injury. Toxicol Rep. 2025;14:101976.
- 86.Torbenson MS. Atlas of Liver Pathology: A Pattern-Based Approach. TorbensonMS. Drug-induced liver injury. In: Atlas of Liver Pathology: A Pattern-Based Approach. Wolters Kluwer; 2019:97-118.
- 87.Agrawal S, Murray BP, Khazaeni B. Acetaminophen toxicity. Stat-Pearls Publishing; 2025.
- 88.Dart RC, Mullins ME, Matoushek T, et al. Management of acetaminophen poisoning in the US and Canada: a consensus statement. JAMA Netw Open. 2023;6(8):e2327739.
- 89.National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. LiverTox. 2012. Accessed September 1, 2025. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK547852/
- 90.Likhitsup A, Chen VL, Fontana RJ. Estimated exposure to 6 potentially hepatotoxic botanicals in US adults. JAMA Netw Open. 2024;7(8):e2425822.
- 91.Liu Z, Zhu Y, Xie H, et al. Immune-mediated hepatitis induced by immune checkpoint inhibitors. Front Pharmacol. 2023;13:1077468.
- 92.Chalasani NP, Maddur H, Russo MW, et al. ACG clinical guideline: diagnosis and management of idiosyncratic drug-induced liver injury. Am J Gastroenterol. 2021;116(5):878-898.
- 93.Francis P, Navarro VJ. Drug-induced hepatotoxicity. StatPearls. September 10, 2024. Accessed September 1, 2025. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557535/
- 94.Cowell W, Ireland T, Vorhees D, et al. Ground turmeric as a source of lead exposure in the United States. Public Health Rep. 2017;132(3):289-293.
- 95.Florian J, Salcedo P, Burkhart K, et al. Cannabidiol and liver enzyme level elevations in healthy adults: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern Med. 2025;185(9):1070-1078.
- 96.Paez M, Laiyemo A, Atanda A, et al. Synthetic marijuana-induced acute liver failure: 1820. Am J Gastroenterol. 2016;111:S873.
- 97.Spengler E, LaBrecque D. A case of acute liver failure associated with synthetic cannabis use. Am J Gastroenterol. 2014;109:S358-S359.
- 98.Mousa O, Shah R, Basciotta M, et al. First reported case of crystal meth-induced ischemic hepatitis: 745. Am J Gastroenterol. 2015;110:S327.
- 1.National Organization for Rare Disorders. Wilson disease. Updated May 23, 2025. Accessed September 27, 2025. https://rarediseases.org/rare-diseases/wilson-disease
- 2.Su F, Yu L, Berry K, et al. Aging of liver transplant registrants and recipients: trends and impact on waitlist outcomes, post-transplantation outcomes, and transplant-related survival benefit. Gastroenterology. 2016;150(2):441.e6-453.e6 , quiz e16.
- 3.Shiffman ML. Autoimmune hepatitis: epidemiology, subtypes, and presentation. Clin Liver Dis. 2024;28(1):1-14.
- 4.Grønbæk L, Vilstrup H, Jepsen P. Autoimmune hepatitis in Denmark: incidence, prevalence, prognosis, and causes of death. A nationwide registry-based cohort study. J Hepatol. 2014;60(3):612-617.
- 5.Sucher E, Sucher R, Gradistanac T, et al. Autoimmune hepatitis-immunologically triggered liver pathogenesis-diagnostic and therapeutic strategies. J Immunol Res. 2019;2019:9437043.
- 6.European Association for the Study of the Liver. EASL clinical practice guidelines on the management of autoimmune hepatitis. J Hepatol. 2025;83(2):453-501.
- 7.Yao J, Jiang SF, Kapoor C, et al. The prevalence of autoimmune hepatitis is rising: estimates and trends from a large, multi-ethnic cohort in the United States. Hepatol Commun. 2025;9(11):e0824.
- 8.Schilsky ML, Roberts EA, Bronstein JM, et al. A multidisciplinary approach to the diagnosis and management of Wilson disease: 2022 practice guidance on Wilson disease from the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases. Hepatology. 2025;82(3):E41-E90.
- 9.Sandahl TD, Laursen TL, Munk DE, et al. The prevalence of Wilson’s disease: an update. Hepatology. 2020;71(2):722-732.
- 10.European Association for the Study of the Liver. EASL clinical practice guidelines on haemochromatosis. J Hepatol. 2022;77(2):479-502.
- 11.Pilling LC, Tamosauskaite J, Jones G, et al. Common conditions associated with hereditary haemochromatosis genetic variants: cohort study in UK Biobank. BMJ. 2019;364:k5222.
- 12.Kowdley KV, Brown KE, Ahn J, et al. ACG clinical guideline: hereditary hemochromatosis. Am J Gastroenterol. 2019;114(8):1202-1218.
- 13.Husar-Memmer E, Stadlmayr A, Datz C, et al. HFE-related hemochromatosis: an update for the rheumatologist. Curr Rheumatol Rep. 2014;16(1):393.
- 14.Pelusi C, Gasparini DI, Bianchi N, et al. Endocrine dysfunction in hereditary hemochromatosis. J Endocrinol Invest. 2016;39(8):837-847.
- 15.Ellervik C, Birgens H, Tybjaerg-Hansen A, et al. Hemochromatosis genotypes and risk of 31 disease endpoints: meta-analyses including 66,000 cases and 226,000 controls. Hepatology. 2007;46(4):1071-1080.
- 16.Szczerbinska A, Kasztelan-Szczerbinska B, Rycyk-Bojarzynska A, et al. Hemochromatosis – how not to overlook and properly manage “iron people”-a review. J Clin Med. 2024;13(13):3660.
- 17.Girelli D, Marchi G, Busti F. Diagnosis and management of hereditary hemochromatosis: lifestyle modification, phlebotomy, and blood donation. Hematology Am Soc Hematol Educ Program. 2024;2024(1):434-442.
- 18.Steinberg KK, Cogswell ME, Chang JC, et al. Prevalence of C282Y and H63D mutations in the hemochromatosis (HFE) gene in the United States. JAMA. 2001;285(17):2216-2222.
- 19.Soloway RD, Summerskill WH, Baggenstoss AH, et al. Clinical, biochemical, and histological remission of severe chronic active liver disease: a controlled study of treatments and early prognosis. Gastroenterology. 1972;63(5):820-833.
- 20.Czaja AJ. Features and consequences of untreated type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. Liver Int. 2009;29(6):816-823.
- 21.Czaja AJ. Acute and acute severe (fulminant) autoimmune hepatitis. Dig Dis Sci. 2013;58(4):897-914.
- 22.Lee BT, Tana MM, Kahn JA, et al. We are not immune: racial and ethnic disparities in autoimmune liver diseases. Hepatology. 2021;74(5):2876-2887.
- 23.de Boer YS, Gerussi A, van den Brand FF, et al.; Dutch Autoimmune Hepatitis Study Group. Association between black race and presentation and liver-related outcomes of patients with autoimmune hepatitis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2019;17(8):1616.e2-1624.e2.
- 24.Verma S, Torbenson M, Thuluvath PJ. The impact of ethnicity on the natural history of autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology. 2007;46(6):1828-1835.
- 25.Mack CL, Adams D, Assis DN, et al. Diagnosis and management of autoimmune hepatitis in adults and children: 2019 practice guidance and guidelines from the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases. Hepatology. 2020;72(2):671-722.
- 26.Hennes EM, Zeniya M, Czaja AJ, et al.; International Autoimmune Hepatitis Group. Simplified criteria for the diagnosis of autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology. 2008;48(1):169-176.
- 27.Galaski J, Weiler-Normann C, Schakat M, et al. Update of the simplified criteria for autoimmune hepatitis: evaluation of the methodology for immunoserological testing. J Hepatol. 2021;74(2):312-320.
- 28.Montano-Loza AJ, Ronca V, Ebadi M, et al.; International Autoimmune Hepatitis Group (IAIHG). Risk factors and outcomes associated with recurrent autoimmune hepatitis following liver transplantation. J Hepatol. 2022;77(1):84-97.
- 29.Adams LA, Lindor KD, Angulo P. The prevalence of autoantibodies and autoimmune hepatitis in patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Am J Gastroenterol. 2004;99(7):1316-1320.
- 30.Snijders RJALM, Stoelinga AEC, Gevers TJG, et al.; Dutch Autoimmune Hepatitis Working Group. An open-label randomised-controlled trial of azathioprine vs. mycophenolate mofetil for the induction of remission in treatment-naive autoimmune hepatitis. J Hepatol. 2024;80(4):576-585.
- 31.Dalekos GN, Arvaniti P, Gatselis NK, et al. Long-term results of mycophenolate mofetil vs. azathioprine use in individuals with autoimmune hepatitis. JHEP Rep. 2022;4(12):100601.
- 32.Mendes F, Couto CA, Levy C. Recurrent and de novo autoimmune liver diseases. Clin Liver Dis. 2011;15(4):859-878.
- 33.Carbone M, Neuberger JM. Autoimmune liver disease, autoimmunity and liver transplantation. J Hepatol. 2014;60(1):210-223.
- 34.Sarkar M, Brady CW, Fleckenstein J, et al. Reproductive health and liver disease: practice guidance by the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases. Hepatology. 2021;73(1):318-365.
- 35.European Association for the Study of the Liver. EASL-ERN clinical practice guidelines on Wilson’s disease. J Hepatol. 2025(24):02706-5.
- 36.Ferenci P, Caca K, Loudianos G, et al. Diagnosis and phenotypic classification of Wilson disease. Liver Int. 2003;23(3):139-142.
- 37.Djebrani-Oussedik N, Desjardins C, Obadia MA, et al. Relative exchangeable copper: a highly specific and sensitive biomarker for Wilson disease diagnosis. JHEP Rep. 2025;7(10):101537.
- 38.Schilsky ML, Czlonkowska A, Zuin M, et al.; CHELATE Trial Investigators. Trientine tetrahydrochloride versus penicillamine for maintenance therapy in Wilson disease (CHELATE): a randomised, open-label, non-inferiority, phase 3 trial. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2022;7(12):1092-1102.
- 39.Jańczyk W, Bierła JB, Trojanowska I, et al. Prevalence and significance of autoantibody seropositivity in children with Wilson’s disease. Diagnostics (Basel). 2023;13(4):768.
- 40.Stättermayer AF, Traussnigg S, Dienes HP, et al. Hepatic steatosis in Wilson disease—role of copper and PNPLA3 mutations. J Hepatol. 2015;63(1):156-163.
- 41.Wiggelinkhuizen M, Tilanus ME, Bollen CW, et al. Systematic review: clinical efficacy of chelator agents and zinc in the initial treatment of Wilson disease. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2009;29(9):947-958.
- 42.Kamlin COF, Jenkins TM, Heise JL, et al. Trientine tetrahydrochloride, from bench to bedside: a narrative review. Drugs. 2024;84(12):1509-1518.
- 43.Członkowska A, Litwin T, Karliński M, et al. D-penicillamine versus zinc sulfate as first-line therapy for Wilson’s disease. Eur J Neurol. 2014;21(4):599-606.
- 44.Scheinberg IH, Jaffe ME, Sternlieb I. The use of trientine in preventing the effects of interrupting penicillamine therapy in Wilson’s disease. N Engl J Med. 1987;317(4):209-213.
- 45.Singal AG, Llovet JM, Yarchoan M, et al. AASLD practice guidance on prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatology. 2023;78(6):1922-1965.
- 46.Roberts EA, Schilsky ML. Current and emerging issues in Wilson’s disease. N Engl J Med. 2023;389(10):922-938.
- 47.Adams PC, Reboussin DM, Barton JC, et al.; Hemochromatosis and Iron Overload Screening (HEIRS) Study Research Investigators. Hemochromatosis and iron-overload screening in a racially diverse population. N Engl J Med. 2005;352(17):1769-1778.
- 48.Hamad M, Bajbouj K, Taneera J. The case for an estrogen-iron axis in health and disease. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes. 2020;128(4):270-277.
- 49.Adams PC, Barton JC. Haemochromatosis. Lancet. 2007;370(9602):1855-1860.
- 50.Pietrangelo A. Iron and the liver. Liver Int. 2016;36:116-123.
- 51.Barton JC, McLaren CE, Chen WP, et al. Cirrhosis in hemochromatosis: independent risk factors in 368 HFE p.C282Y Homozygotes. Ann Hepatol. 2018;17(5):871-879.
- 52.Ramm GA, Ruddell RG. Hepatotoxicity of iron overload: mechanisms of iron-induced hepatic fibrogenesis. Semin Liver Dis. 2005;25(4):433-449.
- 53.Adams PC, Ryan JD. Diagnosis and treatment of hemochromatosis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2025;23(9):1477-1485.
- 54.Wood MJ, Powell LW, Dixon JL, et al. Clinical cofactors and hepatic fibrosis in hereditary hemochromatosis: the role of diabetes mellitus. Hepatology. 2012;56(3):904-911.
- 55.Olynyk JK, Ramm GA. Hemochromatosis. N Engl J Med. 2022;387(23):2159-2170.
- 56.França M, Martí-Bonmatí L, Silva S, et al. Optimizing the management of hereditary haemochromatosis: the value of MRI R2* quantification to predict and monitor body iron stores. Br J Haematol. 2018;183(3):491-493.
- 57.Palmer WC, Stancampiano FF. Hemochromatosis. Ann Intern Med. 2025;178(2):ITC17-ITC32.
- 58.Tsai TL, Chen LN, Ma TL, et al. Transfusion of red cells from donors with hereditary haemochromatosis improve haemoglobin increments in patients. Br J Haematol. 2023;202(5):1052-1054.
- 59.Niederau C, Fischer R, Pürschel A, et al. Long-term survival in patients with hereditary hemochromatosis. Gastroenterology. 1996;110(4):1107-1119.
- 60.Bardou-Jacquet E, Morcet J, Manet G, et al. Decreased cardiovascular and extrahepatic cancer-related mortality in treated patients with mild HFE hemochromatosis. J Hepatol. 2015;62(3):682-689.
- 61.Prabhu A, Cargill T, Roberts N, et al. Systematic review of the clinical outcomes of iron reduction in hereditary hemochromatosis. Hepatology. 2020;72(4):1469-1482.
- 62.Bardou-Jacquet E, Morandeau E, Anderson GJ, et al. Regression of fibrosis stage with treatment reduces long-term risk of liver cancer in patients with hemochromatosis caused by mutation in HFE. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2020;18(8):1851-1857.
Read the full edition
Get immediate access, anytime, anywhere.
Choose a single edition, 1-year or 2-year full-access subscription.
Earn 4 CME credits for this edition.
